DOE-HDBK-1122-99; Radiological Control Technician Training

DOE-HDBK-1122-99

Module 1.03 Physical Sciences Instructor’s Guide

1.03-1

Course Title: Radiological Control Technician

Module Title: Physical Sciences

Module Number: 1.03

Objectives:

1.03.01 Define the following terms as they relate to physics:

a. Work

b. Force

c. Energy

1.03.02 Identify and describe four forms of energy.

1.03.03 State the Law of Conservation of Energy.

1.03.04 Distinguish between a solid, a liquid, and a gas in terms of shape and volume.

1.03.05 Identify the basic structure of the atom, including the characteristics of subatomic

particles.

1.03.06 Define the following terms:

a. Atomic number

b. Mass number

c. Atomic mass

d. Atomic weight

1.03.07 Identify what each symbol represents in the

X notation.

1.03.08 State the mode of arrangement of the elements in the Periodic Table.

1.03.09 Identify periods and groups in the Periodic Table in terms of their layout.

1.03.10 Define the terms as they relate to atomic structure:

a. Valence shell

b. Valence electron

References:

1. "Nuclides and Isotopes"; Fourteenth Edition, General Electric Company; 1989.

2. "Modern Physics"; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Publishers; 1976.

3. "Chemistry: An Investigative Approach"; Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston; 1976.

4. "Chemical Principles with Qualitative Analysis"; Sixth ed.; Saunders College Pub.; 1986.

5. "Introduction to Chemistry" sixth ed., Dickson, T. R., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 1991.

6. "Matter"; Lapp, Ralph E., Life Science Library, Time Life Books; 1965.

7. "Physics"; Giancoli, Douglas C., second ed., Prentice Hall, Inc.; 1985.

8. DOE/HDBK-1015 "Chemistry: Volume 1 of 2"; DOE Fundamentals Handbook Series;

January 1993.

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Instructional Aids:

1. Overheads

2. Overhead projector/screen

3. Chalkboard/whiteboard

4. Chart of the Nuclides

5. Periodic Table of the Elements

6. Lessons Learned

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I. MODULE INTRODUCTION

A. Self-Introduction

1. Name

2. Phone number

3. Background

4. Emergency procedure review

B. Motivation

It is important to a RCT that they have a basic understanding of

physics because they may work in an environments where

materials can undergo changes in state, resulting in changes in

the work environment.

C. Overview of Lesson

1. Physics definitions

2. Law of Conservation of Energy

3. The Atom

4. Periodic Table

5. Valence Electrons

D. Introduce Objectives O.H.: Objectives

II. MODULE OUTLINE

A. Work and Energy

Physics is the branch of science that describes the properties,

changes, and interactions of energy and matter. This unit will

serve as a brief introduction to some of the concepts of physics

as they apply to the situations that may be encountered by

RCTs. A general definition of matter is anything that has mass

and occupies space. Energy can be understood by relating it to

another physical concept - work.

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N '

Kg × m

J ' N × m

1. Work and Force Objective 1.03.01

a. Work is defined in physics as a force acting through a

distance.

b. A force is a push or a pull. A more technical

definition of force is any action on an object that

causes the object to change speed or direction.

c. Units

(1) Force is derived as the product of mass and

acceleration.

(2) The SI derived unit is expressed in terms of

newtons, (N)

(3) Mathematically, work is expressed as:

W = F x d

where:

W = Work

F = Force (newtons)

d = Distance (meters)

(4) The SI unit of work is the joule (J).

(5) One joule of work is performed when a force of

one newton is exerted through a distance of one

meter.

(6) Thus:

B. Energy

1. Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Objective 1.03.02

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mgh

a. Kinetic energy describes the energy of motion an

object possesses. For example, a moving airplane

possesses kinetic energy.

Where:

m = mass

v = velocity

b. Potential energy indicates how much energy is stored

as a result of the position or the configuration of an

object. For example, water at the top of a waterfall

possesses potential energy.

Where:

m = mass

g = free fall acceleration

h = vertical distance

c. Thermal energy describes the energy that results from

the random motion of molecules. For example, steam

possesses heat energy.

d. Chemical energy describes the energy that is derived

from atomic and molecular interactions in which new

substances are produced. For example, the substances

in a dry cell provide energy when they react.

2. Law of Conservation of Energy Objective 1.03.03

a. The Law of Conservation of Energy states that the

total amount of energy in a closed system remains

unchanged. Stated in other terms, as long as no energy

enters or leaves the system, the amount of energy in

the system will always be the same, although it can be

converted from one form to another.

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b. Gasoline contains chemical energy that is released in

the form of heat when a chemical reaction (burning)

with oxygen occurs. This energy comes from the

breaking and making of bonds between atoms. New

products, carbon dioxide and water, are formed as the

gasoline combines with oxygen. The energy of the

burning gasoline produces heat energy which causes

the gaseous combustion products to do work on the

pistons in the engine. The work results in the vehicle

moving, giving it kinetic energy.

c. Units

(1) Thermal energy is often measured in units of

calories (CGS) or British Thermal Units or BTUs

(English).

(a) A calorie is the amount of heat needed to raise

the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 EC.

One calorie is equal to 4.18605 joules.

(b) A BTU is the amount of heat needed to raise

the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 EF.

One BTU is equal to 1.055E3 joules.

(2) Electrical energy is sometimes expressed in units

of kilowatt-hours. One kw-hr is equal to 3.6E6

joules

(a) A very small unit used to describe the energy

of atomic and subatomic size particles is the

electron volt (eV). One electron volt is the

amount of energy acquired by an electron

when it moves through a potential of one volt.

(b) It takes about 15.8 eV of energy to remove an

electron from an atom of argon.

megaelectron volt (MeV) are used to indicate

the energies of various ionizing radiations.

d. Work-Energy Relationship

(1) When work is done by a system or object, it

expends energy. For example, when gaseous

combustion products push against the pistons, the

gas loses energy. The chemical energy stored in

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the gasoline is used to do work so that the car will

move.

(2) When work is done on a system or object, it

acquires energy.

(3) The work done on the car by the combustion of

the gasoline causes the car to move, giving it more

kinetic energy.

(4) When energy is converted to work or changed into

another form of energy, the total amount of energy

remains constant. Although it may appear that an

energy loss has occurred, all of the original energy

can be accounted for.

(5) Consider the example of the automobile. The

energy stored in the gasoline is converted to heat

energy, some of which is eventually converted to

kinetic energy. The remainder of the heat energy

is removed by the engine's cooling system. The

motion of the engine parts creates friction, heat

energy, which is also removed by the engine's

cooling system. As the car travels, it encounters

resistance with the air. If no acceleration occurs,

the car will slow down and the kinetic energy is

converted to friction or heat energy. The contact

of the tires on the road converts some of the

available kinetic energy to heat energy (friction),

slowing down the car. A significant amount of the

energy stored in the gasoline is dissipated as

wasted heat energy.

See Fig. 1 - "Energy

Conversion in an

Automobile"

e. Energy-mass relationship

Energy can also be converted into mass and mass

converted into energy. This topic will be discussed

further in Section 1.04 Nuclear Physics.

C. Energy and Change of State Objective 1.03.04

1. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.

2. There are three states of matter

)

solid, liquid and gas. See Table 1 - "State of

Matter Compared" and

Fig. 2 - "States of Matter"

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3. Solid State

a. A solid has definite shape and volume. The solid state

differs from the liquid and gaseous states in that:

(1) The molecules or ions of a solid are held in place

by strong attractive forces.

(2) The molecules still have thermal energy, but the

energy is not sufficient to overcome the attractive

forces.

(3) The molecules of a solid are arranged in an

orderly, fixed pattern.

4. Liquid State

(a) When heat is added to a substance, the molecules

acquire more energy, which causes them to break free

of their fixed crystalline arrangement. As a solid is

heated, its temperature rises until the change of state

from solid to liquid occurs.

(b) The volume of a liquid is definite since the molecules

are very close to each other, with almost no space in

between. Consequently, liquids can undergo a

negligible amount of compression. However, the

attractive forces between the molecules are not strong

enough to hold the liquid in a definite shape. For this

reason a liquid takes the shape of its container.

overcome the attractive forces of other molecules.

These molecules transfer from the liquid state to the

gaseous state. If energy (heat) is removed from the

liquid, the kinetic energy of the molecules decreases

and the attractive forces can hold the molecules in

fixed positions. When compared with the kinetic

energy, the attractive forces are not strong enough to

hold the molecules in fixed positions, forming a solid.

5. Gaseous State

(a) If the temperature of a liquid is increased sufficiently,

it boils

)

that is, molecules change to the gaseous state

and escape from the surface. Eventually, all of the

liquid will become a gas.

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(b) A gas has both indefinite shape and indefinite volume.

A large space exists between gas molecules because of

their high thermal energy. This allows for even more

compression of a substance in the gaseous state.

D. The Atom Objective 1.03.05

1. The Bohr Model was described by Ernest Rutherford and

Niels Bohr - 1911

See Fig. 3 - Atomic Model

a. Made of protons, neutrons, and electrons

b. Central core called the nucleus

c. Contains protons and neutrons

d. Nuclear forces hold nucleus together

2. Protons

a. Positively charged (+1)

b. Mass = 1.6726 x 10

-24

gm or 1.007276470 amu

c. Each element is determined by the number of protons

in its nucleus. All atoms of the same element have the

same number of protons.

3. Neutrons

a. Neutrally charged (0)

b. Mass = 1.6749 x 10

-24

gm or 1.008665012 amu

c. Determines the isotope of an element. Same number

of protons (therefore, of the same element) but

different number of neutrons. Does not affect

chemical property of element.

4. Electrons

a. Negatively charged (-1)

b. Small mass = 9.1085 x 10

-28

or 0.00054858026 amu

(.1/1840 of a proton)

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c. The mass of an electron is so small as compared to

that of a proton or neutron, virtually the entire mass of

an atom is furnished by the nucleus.

d. Number of electrons is normally equal to the number

of protons (atom is electrically neutral)

e. The number of electrons in the outermost shell

determines the chemical behavior or properties of the

atom.

E. The Elements

1. Even though all atoms have the same basic structure, not

all atoms are the same. There are over a hundred different

types of atoms. These different types of atoms are known

as elements. The atoms of a given element are alike but

have different properties than the atoms of other elements.

2. Elements are the simplest forms of matter. They can exist

alone or in various combinations. Different elements can

chemically combine to form molecules or molecular

compounds. For example, water is a compound, consisting

of water molecules. These molecules can be decomposed

into the elements hydrogen and oxygen. The elements

hydrogen and oxygen are fundamental forms of matter.

They cannot be further separated into simpler chemicals.

3. Chemical Names

a. Currently, there are 109 named elements. Some have

been known for many centuries, while others have only

been discovered in the last 15 or 20 years. Each

element has a unique name. The names of the

elements have a variety of origins. Some elements

were named for their color or other physical

characteristics. Others were named after persons,

places, planets or mythological figures.

See Table 2 - "List of

Elements by Name"

b. For example, the name chromium comes from the

Greek word chroma, which means "color." Chromium

is found naturally in compounds used as pigments.

The elements curium, einsteinium, and fermium were

named after famous nuclear physicists. Germanium,

polonium and americium, were named after countries.

Uranium, neptunium and plutonium are named in

sequence for the three planets Uranus, Neptune and

Pluto.

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4. Chemical Symbols

For convenience, elements have a symbol which is used as

a shorthand for writing the names of elements. The symbol

for an element is either one or two letters taken from the

name of the element. Note that some have symbols that are

based on the historical name of the element. For example,

the symbols for silver and gold are Ag and Au respectively.

These come from the old Latin names argentum and

aurum. The symbol for mercury, Hg, comes from the

Greek hydrargyros which means "liquid silver."

See Table 2 - "List of

Elements by Name"

F. Nomenclature Objective 1.03.06

1. Atomic Number

a. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

b. All atoms of a particular element have the same atomic

number.

c. Atomic numbers are integers.

d. Atomic number for hydrogen is 1.

e. A helium atom has two protons in the nucleus, which

means that its atomic number is 2.

f. Uranium has 92 protons in the nucleus, and has an

atomic number of 92.

2. Mass Number

a. The total number of protons plus neutrons in the

nucleus of an isotope of an element is called the mass

number.

b. Since a proton has a mass of 1.0073 amu, we will give

it a mass number of 1.

c. The mass number for a neutron is also 1, since its

mass is 1.0087 amu.

d. By adding the number of protons and neutrons we can

determine the mass number of the atom of concern.

(1) A Normal hydrogen atom has 1 proton, but no

neutrons. Therefore, its mass number is 1.

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(2) A helium atom has 2 protons and 2 neutrons,

which means it has a mass number of 4.

(3) If a uranium isotope has 146 neutrons, then it has

a mass number of 238 (92 + 146). If it only has

143 neutrons its mass number would be 235.

e. The mass number can be used with the name of the

element to identify to which isotope of an element we

are referring, such as Uranium-235, Uranium-238

(often shortened to U-235 and U-238).

3. Atomic Mass

a. The actual mass of a particular isotope.

b. The units are expressed in Atomic Mass Units (AMU)

(1) AMUs are based on 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-

12 atom, which has an atomic mass of 12 amu.

(2) The mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.007825 amu

(1 proton + 1 electron)

(3) The mass of a Uranium-238 atom is 238.0508 and

the mass of a U-235 atom is 235.0439.

4. Atomic Weight

a. Average weight of an element based on the percent

abundance of its naturally occurring isotopes

(1) using

C and

(2) 12.00 (0.989) + 13.00 (0.011) = 11.868 + 0.143

= 12.011 amu.

b. Units are expressed in AMU

c. Used in calculations of chemical reactions

G. Nuclide Notation Objective 1.03.07

1. format where:

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a. X is the symbol for the element.

b. Z is the atomic number - the number of protons.

c. A is the mass number - number of protons (Z) plus the

number of neutrons (N); therefore, A=Z+N

2. Uranium-238 would be written

238

H. Modern Periodic Table See Fig. 5 - "Periodic Table

of The Elements"

1. The modern Periodic Table is an arrangement of the

elements in order of increasing atomic number. A

comparison of the properties for selected elements will

illustrate that there is a predictable, recurring pattern

(periodicity). This observation is summarized in the

Periodic Law - the properties of the elements are repetitive

or recurring functions of their atomic numbers.

Objective 1.03.08

2. Data about each element in the Periodic Table are present

in a column and row format. The rows or horizontal

sections in the Periodic Table are called periods. The

columns or vertical sections in the Periodic Table are called

groups or families.

Objective 1.03.09

3. The structure of the Periodic Table is directly related to the

arrangement of electrons in the atoms.

See Table 3 - "Electron

Configuration of the

Elements"

See Fig. 4 - "Electron

Shells"

4. Electrons orbit around the nucleus in structured shells,

designated sequentially as 1 through 7 (K through Q) from

inside out. Shells represent groups of energy states called

orbitals. The higher the energy of the orbital the greater

the distance from the nucleus. The lowest energy state is in

the innermost shell (K).

5. The number of orbitals in a shell is the square of the shell

number (n). The maximum number of electrons which can

occupy an orbital is 2. Therefore, each shell can hold a

maximum of 2n

electrons. For example, for the L shell

the maximum number of electrons would be 8:

L-shell: n = 2 YYY 2(2

) = 8

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6. The highest occupied energy level in a ground-state atom is

called its valence shell. Therefore, the electrons contained

in it are called valence electrons. The rows or periods in

the Periodic Table correspond to the electron shells. The

elements contained in first period have their valence

electrons in the first energy level or K-shell. The elements

contained in the second period have their outer or valence

shell electrons in the second energy level or L-shell, and so

on.

Objective 1.03.10

7. The number of electrons in the valence shell determines the

chemical properties or "behavior" of the atom. The valence

shell can have a maximum of eight electrons, except for the

K-shell which can only have two. Atoms are chemically

stable when the valence shell has no vacancies; that is, they

"prefer" to have a full valence shell. Atoms of elements

toward the right of the Periodic Table seem to lack only

one or two electrons. These will "look" for ways to gain

electrons in order to fill their valence shell. Atoms of

elements on the left side of the table seem to have an excess

of one or two electrons. These will tend to find ways to

lose these excess electrons so that the full lower shell will

be the valence shell.

8. The outcome is that certain atoms will combine with other

atoms in order to fill their valence shells. This combination

that occurs is called a chemical bond, and results in the

formation of a molecule. The bond is accomplished by

"sharing" or "giving up" valence electrons, thus forming a

molecule whose chemical properties are different than

those of the individual element atoms.

a. Good example - table salt

9. Note the right most column in the Periodic Table. These

elements are known as the noble or inert gases because

they all have a full valence shell. This means that they

"feel" no need to bond with other atoms. Noble gases are

thus considered chemically inert and very rarely interact

with other elements.

10. The Quantum Mechanical Model

a. Over the years, the Bohr model of the atom was found

to be inadequate as the principles of quantum

mechanics evolved. A newer model, known as the

quantum mechanical model, describes the electrons

arranged in energy levels corresponding to the

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"electron shells" of the Bohr model. In the quantum

mechanical model the electron is not viewed as particle

in a specific orbit, but rather as an electron cloud in

which the negative charge of the electron is spread out

within the cloud. These energy levels are referred to as

orbitals to emphasize that these are not circular

"orbits" like those of the Bohr model but rather

electron clouds. An electron cloud is a representation

of the volume about the nucleus in which an electron

of a specific energy is likely to be found.

b. The quantum mechanical model further states that the

energy levels are subdivided into sublevels, referred to

by the letters s, p, d and f. An energy level can contain

1 to 4 sublevels or orbitals, and a maximum of two

electrons can reside in each sublevel. For example, the

first energy level contains one s sublevel which can

accommodate a maximum of two electrons.

III. SUMMARY

A. Review major topics

1. Physics definitions

2. Law of Conservation of Energy

3. The Atom

4. Periodic Table

5. Valence Electrons

B. Review learning objectives

IV. EVALUATION

Evaluation should consist of a written examination comprised of

multiple choice questions. 80% should be the minimum passing

criteria for the examination.

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