International Criminal Law
& Practice
Training Materials
Crimes
Against
Humanity
Supporng the Transfer of Knowledge and Materials
of War Crimes Cases from the ICTY to Naonal
Jurisdicons, funded by the European Union
Developed by Internaonal Criminal Law Services
3. General Principles
4. International Courts
5. Domestic Application
6. Genocide
7. Crimes Against Humanity
8. War Crimes
9. Modes of Liability
10. Su perior Responsibility
12. Procedure & Evidence
13. Sentencing
14. Victims & Witnesses
15. MLA & Cooperation
11. Defences
2. What is ICL?
1. Introduction
Project funded by the EU Implemented by:
MODULE 7:
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
Part of the OSCE-
Materials of War Crimes Cases from the ICTY to National
ii
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations,
the ICTY or the OSCE-ODIHR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or
of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Copyright © ICLS OSCE-ODIHR
iii
CONTENTS
7. Crimes against humanity ...................................................................................................... 1
7.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1
7.1.1. Module description .......................................................................................................... 1
7.1.2. Module outcomes ............................................................................................................ 1
7.2. International law and jurisprudence ..................................................................................... 4
7.2.1. Overview .......................................................................................................................... 4
7.2.2. Elements of crimes against humanity under international law ....................................... 6
7.3. Regional law and jurisprudence .......................................................................................... 44
7.4. BiH ....................................................................................................................................... 45
7.4.1. Overview ........................................................................................................................ 45
7.4.2. Principle of legality ......................................................................................................... 48
7.4.3. General contextual elements of crimes against humanity ............................................ 50
7.4.4. Specific underlying crimes.............................................................................................. 57
7.5. Croatia ................................................................................................................................. 81
7.6. Serbia .................................................................................................................................. 83
7.7. Further reading ................................................................................................................... 84
7.7.1. Books .............................................................................................................................. 84
7.7.2. Articles............................................................................................................................ 84
7.7.3. Reports ........................................................................................................................... 84
7.7.4. Treaties ........................................................................................................................... 85
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW & PRACTICE TRAINING MATERIALS ICLS
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7. CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
7.1. INTRODUCTION
These training materials have been developed by International Criminal Law Services (ICLS) as a
part of the OSCE-ODIHR-ICTY- unded by the European
Union. An introduction to how to use the materials can be found in Module 1, which also
includes a case study and hypotheticals that can be used as training tools, and other useful
annexes. The materials are intended to serve primarily as training tool and resource for legal
trainers in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), Croatia and Serbia, but are also envisaged for
adaptation and use in other jurisdictions of the region. Discussion questions, tips, and other
useful notes for training have been included where appropriate. However, trainers are
encouraged to adapt the materials to the needs of the participants and the particular
circumstances of each training session. Trainers are also encouraged to update the materials as
may be necessary, especially with regards to new jurisprudence or changes to the criminal codes
in their relevant jurisdiction.
Each Module provides a general overview of the international criminal law relevant to the
Modulea,
respectively. The materials make use of the most relevant and available jurisprudence. It should
be noted that where a first instance judgement has been cited, the drafters have taken special
care to ensure that the part referred to was upheld on appeal. It may be useful for trainers to
discuss additional cases that might also be relevant or illustrative for each topic, and to ask
participants to discuss their own cases and experiences.
7.1.1. MODULE DESCRIPTION
This Module covers crimes against humanity under international law. It provides an overview of
the general contextual elements of crimes against humanity as well as the specific prohibited
underlying acts that constitute crimes against humanity. Thereafter, the Module outlines the
ways in which crimes against humanity are prosecuted in the domestic jurisdictions of BiH,
Croatia and Serbia.
7.1.2. MODULE OUTCOMES
At the end of this Module, participants should understand:
The elements of crimes against humanity;
The concepts of:
o population,
o A widespread attack, and
o A systematic attack;
The definition of a civilian population;
How a link or nexus can be drawn between the attack on a civilian population and the
acts of the accused;
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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MODULE 7
How an attack against a civilian population can be proved;
The prohibited acts that constitute crimes against humanity;
The distinction between the acts prohibited by the ICTY/ICTR Statutes and the ICC Rome
Statute;
The differences between genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity;
The difference between murder and extermination;
The differences between sexual slavery and enforced prostitution;
The distinction between specific intent, required for persecution, and the intent to
commit all underlying acts amounting to crimes against humanity; and
How crimes against humanity are or can be charged in national jurisdictions of BiH,
Croatia and Serbia.
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW & PRACTICE TRAINING MATERIALS ICLS
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Notes for trainers:
This Module deals with both the contextual elements for crimes against humanity
and the specific prohibited underlying acts that constitute crimes against humanity.
It is important for participants to understand what the general contextual
requirements are for crimes against humanity, namely that these crimes are
committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack on any civilian population.
It is these features which distinguish crimes against humanity from war crimes and
ordinary crimes. It must be emphasised that isolated acts are excluded from crimes
against humanity. It is only when criminal conduct forms part of a widespread or
systematic attack that it can be characterised as a crime against humanity.
In addition to these contextual elements, participants must discuss and understand
which particular prohibited acts, if committed as part of an attack against a civilian
population, will constitute crimes against humanity.
example:
o What are the main features of a widespread or systematic attack?
o What constitutes a civilian population? Does it make any difference if there are
armed forces mixed in with the population?
o What role does an accused need to play in relation to the widespread or
systematic attack?
o Do the underlying prohibited acts (i.e. murder, torture, rape, etc.) themselves
have to be widespread or systematic? What relationship must there be
between the underlying acts and the attack?
In order to encourage participants to engage with these questions, they could be
referred to the case study, in which a number of different acts were allegedly
committed against civilians. Participants should be encouraged to discuss whether
these acts could be charged as crimes against humanity and what evidence would
be required to prove such crimes based on the factual summary and any other
evidence that may need to be identified.
inserted at the beginning of important sections. These notes will highlight the main
issues for trainers to address, identify questions which the trainers can use to direct
the participants to focus on the important issues and to stimulate discussion and
make references to the parts of the case study that are relevant and which can be
used as practical examples to apply the legal issues being taught.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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7.2. INTERNATIONAL LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE
7.2.1. OVERVIEW
Genocide and war crimes have been codified in treaties, whereas crimes against humanity (CAH)
have evolved under customary international law.
1
Crimes against humanity were first charged
under the Nuremberg Tribunal Charter.
2
The definition of CAH was set out in the Charter and the
Nuremburg judgement. The UN General Assembly endorsed the concept of CAH in 1946.
3
The
content of crimes against humanity has evolved since WW II through the jurisprudence of the
ICTY, ICTR and ICC.
The statutes of the international tribunals generally reflect CAH as they existed under customary
international law. However, there are some differences in the contextual requirements for CAH
in the Statutes of the various international tribunals, which will be discussed in more detail
below.
1
See ROBERT CRYER, ET AL., AN INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW AND PROCEDURE, 230 233 (2010); or
COMMENTARY ON THE ROME STATUTE OF THE CRIMINAL COURT, 121 122 (Otto Triffterer ed., 1999) for a
background to the development of crimes against humanity.
2
Yale Law School, Charter of the International Military Tribunal, Constitution, available at
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/imtconst.asp (accessed 24 June 2011).
3
Affirmation of the Principles of International Law Recognized by the Charter of the Nuremburg Tribunal,
G.A. Res. 95(I), UN Doc A/64/Add.1 (Dec. 11, 1946).
Article 5/3 of the ICTY/R Statute
Crimes against humanity
The International Tribunal shall have the power to prosecute persons responsible for
the following crimes when committed in armed conflict, whether international or
internal in character, and directed against any civilian population:
(a) murder;
(b) extermination;
(c) enslavement;
(d) deportation;
(e) imprisonment;
(f) torture;
(g) rape;
(h) persecutions on political, racial and religious grounds;
(i) other inhumane acts.
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW & PRACTICE TRAINING MATERIALS ICLS
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Article 7 of the ICC Rome Statute
Crimes against humanity
following acts when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack
directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack:
(a) Murder;
(b) Extermination;
(c) Enslavement;
(d) Deportation or forcible transfer of population;
(e) Imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty in violation of
fundamental rules of international law;
(f) Torture;
(g) Rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced
sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity;
(h) Persecution against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial,
national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender as defined in paragraph 3, or other
grounds that are universally recognized as impermissible under international
law, in connection with any act referred to in this paragraph or any crime
within the jurisdiction of the Court;
(i) Enforced disappearance of persons;
(j) The crime of apartheid;
(k) Other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great
suffering, or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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7.2.2. ELEMENTS OF CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW
A crime against humanity is committed when:
The accused commits a prohibited act ;
That is part of:
o
o
o ;
And
The ICTY Statute requires that the attack be committed in the context of an armed conflict,
4
and
the ICTR Statute requires that the attack have a discriminatory element.
5
Neither of these
4
However, the ICTY has held that under customary international law, a connection with an armed conflict
-94-1, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal
on Jurisdiction, Appeals Chamber, 2 Oct. 1995, ¶ 141, See also Kaing Guek Eav, Case No. 001/18-07-
2007/ECCC/TC, Trial Judgement, 26 July 2010, ¶ 2I8.
5
See infra, section 7.2.2.1.7.
Notes for trainers:
This section deals with the general contextual elements that apply to all crimes
against humanity. These are the essential elements which must be established before
any particular act can constitute a crime against humanity.
The next section will deal with each of the particular underlying acts that may be
regarded as crimes against humanity if the contextual elements are satisfied.
The main contextual elements that are discussed in this section are:
o
o The requirement of a nexus between the attack and the acts of the accused;
o The definition of the civilian population;
o
o The knowledge required on the part of the accused of such an attack.
In order to most effectively discuss these issues with participants, they should use the
case study to consider whether on the facts of that case the contextual elements
could be established. For example, participants could discuss whether the attack on
the restaurant could be regarded as forming part of a widespread or systematic
attack against a civilian population. They could also discuss whether the acts of the
accused were sufficiently related to any attack against a civilian population and
whether it could be shown that he knew about such an attack.
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW & PRACTICE TRAINING MATERIALS ICLS
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A crime against humanity involves the
commission of certain prohibited acts
committed as part of a widespread or
systematic attack directed against a
civilian population.
A person commits a crime
against humanity when he or
she commits a prohibited act
that forms part of an attack.
elements are required by the definition of crimes against humanity under customary
international law. At the ICC neither of these additional elements is required.
6
7.2.2.1. CONTEXTUAL ELEMENTS
A crime against humanity involves the commission
of certain prohibited acts committed as part of a
widespread or systematic attack directed against a
civilian population. When committed within this
domestic crime, such as murder, becomes a crime
against humanity.
7.2.2.1.1. AN ATTACK
A person commits a crime against humanity when he or
she commits a prohibited act that forms part of an attack.
7
against a civilian population has taken place include:
Were there discriminatory measures imposed by
the relevant authority?
Was there an authoritarian takeover of the region where the crimes occurred?
Did summary arrests, detention, torture, rape, sexual violence or other crimes take
place?
Did massive transfers of civilians to camps take place?
8
6
It should be noted that while the attack need not be discriminatory, the crime of persecution requires
that the act amounting to persecution be carried out on discriminatory grounds.
7
See, e.g., Jean-Paul Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, Trial Judgement, 2 Sept. 1998, ¶ 205.
8
-
94-2-R61, 20 Oct. 1995, ¶ 27.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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MODULE 7
or acts to be considered an attack
directed against a civilian population.
It is not required that an
entire population of an
area be targeted.
The attack does not need to involve
the military or violent force.
crime against humanity can occur when there is no
armed conflict.
9
Thus, an attack is not limited to the
conduct of armed hostilities or use of armed force. CAH
can include mistreatment of a civilian population. The
attack could also precede, outlast or continue during an armed conflict, without necessarily
being part of it.
10
The attack does not need to involve the military or violent force.
11
ICTY and ICTR jurisprudence, and the Rome
Statute, provide that there must be at least
attack directed against a civilian population.
12
The
acts can be of the same type or different.
13
14
7.2.2.1.2. DIRECTED AGAINST ANY CIVILIAN POPULATION
target of the attack,
not just an incidental target.
15
.
16
highlights the fact that CAH can be committed against both enemy nationals and crimes by
a state own subjects.
17
efers to non-combatants.
collective nature.
18
It is not required that an entire population of
an area be targeted. It is enough to show that a certain number
of individuals were targeted in the course of the attack, or that
individuals were targeted in such a way that demonstrates that
9
Except at the ICTY, where crimes against humanity
international or internal in character ICTY Statute, Art. 5. This requirement was abandoned in the ICTR
and ICC Statutes.
10
Dragoljub Kunarac et al., Case No. IT-96-23-A, Appeal Judgement, 12 June 2002, ¶ 86.
11
Akayesu, TJ ¶¶ 676 684.
12
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Art. 7(2)(a); Dragoljub Kunarac et al., Case No. IT-96-
23-T, Trial Judgement, 22 Feb. 2001, ¶ 415; Milorad Krnojelac, Case No. IT-97-25-T, Trial Judgement, 15
March 2002, ¶ 54.
13
Clément Kayishema et al., Case No. ICTR-95-I-T, Trial Judgement, 21 May 1999, ¶ 122.
14
ICC-ASP/1/3 (adopted 9 Sept. 2002, entered into force 9 Sept. 2002),
Introduction to Art. 7 (ICC Elements of Crimes).
15
, Case No. IT-95-14-A, Appeal Judgement, 29 July 2004, ¶ 106.
16
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 91.
17
CRYER, supra at p. 241.
18
-94-1-T, Trial Judgement, 7 May 1997, ¶ 644.
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW & PRACTICE TRAINING MATERIALS ICLS
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The ultimate objectivesuch as
restoring democracyof a fighting
force can be no justification for
attacking a civilian population.
rather than against a small and
randomly selected number of individuals.
19
Factors to determine whether the attack was directed against a civilian population include:
the means and methods used in the course of the attack;
the number of victims;
the status of the victims;
the discriminatory nature of the attack;
the nature of the crimes committed in the course of the attack;
the resistance to the assailants at the time; and
the extent to which the attacking force may be said to have complied or attempted to
comply with the precautionary requirements of the laws of war.
20
The ultimate objectivesuch as restoring
democracyof a fighting force can be no justification
for attacking a civilian population. Rules of IHL apply
equally to both sides of a conflict, irrespective of who
, and the absolute prohibition under
international customary and treaty law on targeting
the civilian population precludes military necessity or
any other purpose as a justification.
21
forces or other legitimate combatants.
22
The civilian population must be the primary target of
the attack, not a secondary victim.
23
19
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 90; -98-29-T, Trial Judgement, 5 Dec. 2003, ¶ 143;
Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 56; Kunarac et al., TJ ¶¶ 424-425; et al., Case No. IT-98-34-T, Trial
Judgement, 31 March 2003, ¶ 235; Akayesu, TJ ¶ 582; Georges A. N. Rutaganda, Case No. ICTR-96-3-T,
Trial Judgement, 26 May 2003, ¶ 71; Kayishema, TJ ¶ 128.
20
, AJ, ¶ 106; Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 90.
21
Moinina Fofana et al., Case No. SCSL-2003-11-A, Appeal Judgement, 28 May 2008, ¶ 247.
22
Geneva Conventions 1949 (adopted 12 Aug. 1949, entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (GC I-IV), Common
Art. 3, and Additional Protocol I (adopted 8 June 1977, entered into force 7 Dec. 1978) (AP I) Arts. 43 and
50; Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Case No. ICC-01/09, Decision Pursuant to Article 15 of the Rome
Statute on the Authorization of an Investigation into the Situation in the Republic of Kenya, 31 March
2010, ¶ 82 (fn 74), citing Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Case No. ICC-01/05-01/08-424, Decision Pursuant to
Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute on the Charges of the Prosecutor Against Jean-Pierre Bemba
Gombo, Pre-Trial Chamber II, 15 June 2009 ¶ 78; Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 425.
23
Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Decision Pursuant to Article 15 of the Rome Statute, ¶ 82(fn 73),
citing Bemba Confirmation Decision ¶ 77; Kunarac et al., AJ ¶¶ 91-2; -97-24-T,
Trial Judgement, 31 July 2003, ¶ 624; -98-32-T, Trial Judgement, 29 Nov. 2002,
¶ 33.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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MODULE 7
character of the population. A population is
still considered
armed police or isolated soldiers in the group.
7.2.2.1.2.1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANY CIVILIAN POPULATION AND MILITARY
TARGETS
Since the primary object of the attack must be any civilian population, attacks that are directed
primarily at military targets are excluded. To determine whether an attack was aimed at civilian
or military targets, the court may consider whether or not the relevant party complied with the
laws of war
24
(this does not mean that targeting civilians is lawful when justified by military
necessitythere is an absolute prohibition on targeting civilians under international law
25
).
For example, in the case at the ICTY, crimes were directed against a group of people
based on their perceived involvement in the armed forces and therefore were treated
differently than the civilian population. The facts of this case involved wounded combatants
being selected for execution and killed. These crimes were not crimes against humanity,
however, even though they were committed just two days after the perpetrators had
participated in a major attack on civilians in the same region. Since the perpetrators acted with
the understanding that their victims were members of the armed forces, they did not intend for
their acts to form part of the attack on the civilian population and therefore no nexus existed.
26
7.2.2.1.2.2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANY CIVILIAN POPULATION AND COMBATANTS
Members of the civilian population are
people who are not taking any active part
in the hostilities.
27
The presence within
that population of some individuals who do
not come within the definition of civilians
does not deprive the population of its
if there are armed police or isolated soldiers in the group.
28
The population must be
The presence within a population of members of resistance groups, or former combatants who
have laid down their arms, and of other non-civilians does not alter the civilian character of that
29
24
Kunarac et al.-98-29/1-A, Appeal Judgement, 12 Nov. 2009, ¶¶
54, 96, 127 128, 250.
25
, AJ ¶ 109.
26
et al., Case No. IT-95-13/1-A, Appeal Judgement, 5 May 2009, ¶ 42.
27
See generally CRYER, supra at p. 241 3; , TJ ¶ 638; , AJ ¶¶ 110, 113-5; Pavle Strugar
-01-42--95-11-
A, Appeal Judgement, 8 Oct. 2008, ¶¶ 302-6, 308, 311, 313, 318-319, 346, 355.
28
et al.-98-29-A, Appeal Judgement, 30 Nov. 2006, 136 137,
¶¶ fn 437; See also et al., Case No. IT-02-60-T, Trial Judgement, 17 Jan. 2005, ¶ 544.
29
, AJ ¶¶ 113 115; , AJ ¶ 35; , AJ ¶ 313; et al., TJ, ¶ 544.
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW & PRACTICE TRAINING MATERIALS ICLS
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There is no requirement nor is
it an element of CAH that each
victim of the underlying crimes
be a civilian.
frequent, large-scale action, carried
out collectively with considerable
seriousness and directed against a
multiplicity of victims.
In order to determine whether the presence of soldiers or other non-civilians within a civilian
of
soldiers or non-civilians, as well as whether they are on leave, may be considered.
Who are non-civilians? Article 50 of Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions (AP I)
may largely be viewed as
30
and are used to determine who is a civilian and the civilian character
of populations for the purposes of CAH.
Persons placed hors de combat remain members of the armed forces of a party to a conflict and
are not civilians.
31
Members of the armed forces, and members of militias or volunteer corps
forming part of such armed forces, cannot claim civilian status, even when not armed or in
combat. Further, members of other militias and members of other volunteer corps (other than
those forming part of the armed forces, mentioned above), including organised resistance
groups cannot claim civilian status, provided that:
they belong to a party of the conflict;
they are commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates;
they have a fixed distinctive sign recognisable at a distance;
they carry arms openly; and
they conduct their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war.
32
However, non-civilians, such as persons placed hors de
combat, can still be the victims of an act amounting to a
CAH if all other necessary conditions are met and in
particular the act in question is part of a widespread or
systematic attack against any civilian population. In other
words, there is no requirement nor is it an element of CAH
that each victim of the underlying crimes be a civilian.
33
7.2.2.1.3. WIDESPREAD OR SYSTEMATIC
racter
of the attack, particularly its scale.
-scale nature of an
attack, primarily reflected in the number of victims.
There is no set number of victims that makes an
30
, AJ ¶ 110.
31
, AJ ¶ 35; , AJ ¶¶ 110, 113-et al., Case No. IT-95-14/2-A, Appeal
Judgement, 17 Dec. 2004, ¶ 97; , AJ, fn 437.
32
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of
Prisoners of War (Third Geneva Convention), Art., 4., 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 135, available at
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b36c8.html (accessed 27 June 2011).
33
, AJ ¶¶ 306, 313.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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MODULE 7
The requirement that the attack be
disjunctive: only one must be proven.
Only the attack as a
individual acts, must be
widespread or systematic.
-scale action, carried
out collectively with considerable seriousness and directed against a multiplicity of victims.
34
ce of similar
criminal conduct on a regular basis.
35
36
that is
37
The requirement that the attack is
t be
proven. So a crime against humanity could be
committed as part of a large-scale attack against a
civilian population resulting in many deaths, or as
part of regular and methodical violence or crimes
with fewer victims.
must be widespread or systematic.
38
In other words, the
separate underlying prohibited acts do not need to be
widespread or systematic (i.e. there is no requirement that the
murders must be widespread or systematic under a charge of
murder as a crime against humanity), as long as the prohibited
acts form part of an attack that is widespread or systematic.
the:
number of criminal acts;
existence of criminal patterns;
logistics and resources involved;
number of victims;
existence of public statements related to the attacks;
existence of a plan or policy targeting the civilian population;
39
means and methods used in the attack;
foreseeability of the criminal occurrences;
34
Akayesu, TJ ¶¶ 579-580; Rutaganda, TJ ¶¶ 67-69; Alfred Musema, Case No. ICTR-96-13, Trial
Judgement, Jan. 27 2000, ¶ 204.
35
, TJ ¶ 648; Kunarac et al., TJ, ¶ 429; Elizaphan Ntakirutimana et al., Case No. ICTR-96-10-T and
ICTR-96-17-T, Trial Judgement, 21 Feb. 2003, ¶ 804.
36
, TJ ¶¶ 646 and 648.
37
Akayesu, TJ ¶ 580.
38
, AJ ¶ 101; Kunarac et al., AJ ¶¶ 93-96; -99-36-T, Trial Judgement, 1
Sept. 2004, ¶¶ 135-6.
39
Previous ICTR jurisprudence held that a systematic attack encompassed acts done pursuant to a policy
or plan; this was later rejected by the Appeals Chamber. Laurent Semanza, Case No. ICTR-97-20-A, Appeal
Judgement, 20 May 2005, ¶¶ 268-269; Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 98 (existence of policy or plan may be evidence
going to other elements of the crime, but is not an independent legal element).
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW & PRACTICE TRAINING MATERIALS ICLS
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involvement of political or military authorities;
temporally and geographically repeated and coordinated military operations leading to
same result;
alteration of ethnic, religious, racial or political composition of overall population;
establishment of new political or military structures in region; and
adoption of various discriminatory procedures.
40
7.2.2.1.4. POLICY/ORGANIZATIONAL REQUIREMENT
Before the ICTY, it has been held that as a matter of customary law that it is not required to
show that the attack was carried out as part of a policy or plan.
41
The existence of a policy or
plan can be relevant to establish that the attack was widespread or systematic, or directed
against a civilian population.
42
ance of a State or
organizational policy to commit such attack
43
It is not required
that the policy be adopted by the highest level of the state; policies adopted by regional or local
state organs could be sufficient.
44
By a majority, a Pre-Trial Chamber at the ICC has held that non-state organisations can, for the
purposes of Article 7(2) of the Rome Statute, devise and carry out a policy to attack a civilian
population.
45
The following elements may be considered to determine, on a case-by-case basis,
whether a group qualifies as an organisation under Article 7(2):
40
Semanza, AJ ¶¶ 268-269; Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 98; , TJ ¶ 147;
No. IT-95-10T, Trial Judgement, 14 Dec. 1999, ¶ 53.
41
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 98; , AJ ¶ 100.
42
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 98; , AJ ¶ 100; But see Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Case No. ICC-01/09-
01/1, Decision Requesting Observations on the Place of the Proceedings for the Purposes of the
Confirmation of Charges Hearing, Pre-Trial Chamber II, 06 March, 2011; William Samoei Ruto et al., Case
No. ICC-01/09-01/11, Dissenting Opinion by Judge Hans-Peter Kaul to Pre-
the Prosecutor's Application for Summons to Appear for William Samoei Ruto, Henry Kiprono Kosgey and
43
Rome Statute, Art. 7(2), ICC Elements of Crimes (n 85), Introduction to Art. 7.
44
Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Decision Pursuant to Article 15 of the Rome Statute, ¶ 89 (fn 81),
citing -95-14-T, Trial Judgement, 3 March 2000, ¶ 205.
45
Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Decision Pursuant to Article 15 of the Rome Statute, ¶ 92.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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MODULE 7
and not simply coincide withof the
widespread or systematic attack directed
against a civilian population.
One trial panel at the Court of BiH has held that Article 172(2)(a) of the BiH Criminal Code
ce of a State or organizational
policy to commit such attack.
46
However, another trial panel noted that there is no requirement
customary international law.
47
7.2.2.1.5. NEXUS
and
not simply coincide withthe widespread or
systematic attack directed against a civilian
population.
48
Except for extermination, the
underlying offence need not be carried out
against multiple victims in order to constitute a
CAH.
49
Thus an act directed against a limited
number of victims, or even against a single victim, may suffice, provided it forms part of a
widespread or systematic attack against a civilian population.
50
The nexus requirement has two elements the prosecution must prove:
46
Court of BiH, Mom-KR-07/478, 1st Instance Verdict, 3 July 2009, p. 36 (p. 32 BCS)
(relevant part upheld on appeal).
47
Ibid.(p. 32 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 98.
48
, AJ ¶¶ 248, 255; Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 417; Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 99.
49
But the attack must include multiple acts, see section 7.2.2.1.3.
50
Ferdinand Nahimana, Case No. ICTR-96-11A, Appeal Judgement, 28 Nov. 2007, ¶ 924; , AJ ¶ 101;
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 96.
Article 7(2) of the Rome Statute
(i) whether the group is under a responsible command, or has an established
hierarchy;
(ii) whether the group possesses, in fact, the means to carry out a widespread or
systematic attack against a civilian population;
(iii) whether the group exercises control over part of the territory of a state;
(iv) whether the group has criminal activities against the civilian population as a
primary purpose;
(v) whether the group articulates, explicitly or implicitly, an intention to attack a
civilian population; and
(vi) whether the group is part of a larger group, which fulfils some or all of the above
mentioned criteria.
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW & PRACTICE TRAINING MATERIALS ICLS
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must be related to
the attack.
In addition to the intent to commit the
underlying crime, an accused must know of the
broader context in which his actions occur.
The commission of an act that, by its very nature or consequences, is liable to have the
effect of furthering the attack.
Knowledge on the part of the accused that there is an attack on the civilian population
and that his act is part of the attack.
51
Factors to determine whether a prohibited act of an
the characteristics,
aims,
nature, and
consequences
52
of the act;
The ;
The time and place of the acts, and how they relate to the attack;
53
and in particular
How the acts relate to the attack or further any policy underlying the attack.
T act must be related to the attack. A crime which is
committed before, after or away from the main attack against the
civilian population could still, if sufficiently connected, be part of that
attack.
54
The prohibited act must not, however, be an isolated act. An act
would be regarded as an isolated act when it is so far removed from the attack that, having
considered the context and circumstances in which it was committed, it cannot reasonably be
said to have been part of the attack.
55
The acts of the accused need not be the same as other acts committed during the attack. For
example, if an attack results in killings, and a person commits sexual violence as part of the
attack, the person is guilty of a CAH of sexual violence, when the necessary contextual elements
and nexus are satisfied.
56
7.2.2.1.6. MENS REA/KNOWLEDGE OF THE ATTACK
In addition to the intent to commit the
underlying crime (such as murder,
persecution, torture), an accused must
know of the broader context in which his
actions occur, and more particularly, he
must:
51
, AJ ¶ 41; Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 418; Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 99.
52
Laurent Semanza, Case No. ICTR-97-20-T, Trial Judgement, 15 May 2003, ¶ 326.
53
See, e.g., , TJ ¶¶ 629 633.
54
, AJ ¶ 41; Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 127.
55
, AJ ¶ 41; Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 100.
56
Kayishema, TJ ¶ 122.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
16
MODULE 7
A CAH may be committed for
purely personal reasons. The
accused need not share the
purpose or goal behind the attack.
know of the attack directed against the civilian population, and
know that his criminal act comprises part of that attack or at least take the risk that his
acts are part of that attack.
57
An absence of such knowledge may suggest an ordinary
crime or, depending on the circumstances, a war crime.
Usually, a crime against humanity will be committed in
the context of an attack that is well known, and an
accused could not credibly deny knowing about the
attack. Thus, knowledge can be proven by drawing
inferences from relevant facts and circumstances.
58
The mens rea relates to knowledge of the context, not motive.
59
A CAH may be committed for
purely personal reasons.
60
The accused need not share the purpose or goal behind the attack:
It is irrelevant whether the accused intended his acts to be directed against the
targeted population or merely against his victim. It is the attack, not the acts of
the accused, which must be directed against the target population and the
accused need only know that his acts are part thereof. At most, evidence that he
committed the acts for purely personal reasons could be indicative of a
rebuttable presumption that he was not aware that his acts were part of that
attack.
61
7.2.2.1.7. MENS REA IN RELATION TO DISCRIMINATORY GROUNDS
The ICTY Appeals Chamber has ruled that discrimination is not a requirement for CAH in
generalonly in the case of persecution.
62
The ICTR Statute requires that CAH be committed
because of discriminatory grounds. However, the ICTR Appeals Chamber has held that the
discriminatory grounds restriction in the ICTR Statute applies only to that court and is not a
requirement in customary international law.
63
57
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 102; , TJ ¶ 138; , TJ ¶ 148; Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 59; Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 434.
58
Mitar -98-32-A, Appeal Judgement, 25 Feb. 2004, ¶¶ 28, 20; International Criminal
Court, Elements of Crimes, General Introduction, ¶ 3 (9 Nov. 2002) available at http://www.icc-
cpi.int/Menus/ICC/Legal+Texts+and+Tools/Official+Journal/Elements+of+Crimes.htm (accessed 27 June
2011).
59
, AJ ¶¶ 271-2.
60
Ibid. at ¶¶ 252, 272-305.
61
, AJ ¶ 124; Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 103.
62
, AJ ¶¶ 282-
or persecutory intent for all crimes against humanity); See also , AJ ¶¶ 224, 260.
63
Jean-Paul Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-A, Appeal Judgement, 1 June 2001, ¶¶ 461-9.
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW & PRACTICE TRAINING MATERIALS ICLS
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7.2.2.2. PROHIBITED UNDERLYING ACTS OR UNDERLYING
7.2.2.2.1. OVERVIEW
The ICTY and ICTR Statutes prohibit the following underlying offences that can constitute CAH:
Murder;
Extermination;
Enslavement;
Deportation;
Imprisonment;
Torture;
Rape;
Persecutions on political, racial and religious grounds; and
Other inhumane acts.
The ICC has also incorporated the following acts under crimes against humanity:
Sexual slavery;
Enforced prostitution;
Forced pregnancy;
Other sexual violence;
Enforced disappearance; and
Apartheid.
Notes for trainers:
This section now deals with each of the specific underlying acts which could constitute
crimes against humanity when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack
against a civilian population.
It is important for participants to consider the elements of each of the acts which have
to be proven in addition to having to establish the general contextual elements. Many
of the elements of the specific acts are similar to the same acts when committed as
war crimes, but participants need to be aware of the distinct contextual requirements
for crimes against humanity.
In order to explore the elements of the underlying acts, participants can use the case
study to discuss which particular crimes against humanity could be charged on the
facts of that case. One of the issues that participants could consider is whether
persecution could be charged on the facts of the case study.
Another question to be addressed is the difference between extermination and
murder, and what evidence is required to prove extermination.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
18
MODULE 7
The underlying acts do not have to
be the same as the other acts
committed during the attack.
It is not required to recover the body to
prove beyond a reasonable doubt that a
person was murdered. The fact of a
circumstantially from other evidence.
Any of these acts can be a crime against humanity if it is part of the overall attack on civilians.
64
If
it is committed on a very large scale, such as using biological weapons against a civilian
population, it could by itself be considered the attack.
65
The underlying acts do not have to be the same as
the other acts committed during the attack. A person
who rapes a woman during a forceful takeover of
power could be guilty of the crime against humanity
of sexual violence.
Some of the prohibited acts have special mental
requirements, but in general, the perpetrator must have committed the act with intent and
knowledge of the relevant circumstances.
66
7.2.2.2.2. MURDER
67
Mens rea the perpetrator intends to kill, or intends to inflict grievous bodily harm likely to
cause death but is reckless as to whether death ensues.
68
The appeals chamber has recognised
that the mens rea includes both direct and indirect forms of intention.
69
It is not required to recover the body to prove
beyond a reasonable doubt that a person was
inferred circumstantially from other evidence.
70
One Trial Chamber also stated that circumstantial
only
reasonable inference is that the victim is dead as
a result of the acts or omissions of the accused
71
wilful
crime. See Module 8 (War Crimes) for more information.
7.2.2.2.3. EXTERMINATION
64
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 96; , AJ ¶ 101.
65
, TJ ¶ 206.
66
See, e.g., Rome Statute, Art. 30.
67
Akayesu, TJ ¶ 589; et al., Case No. IT-95-16-A, Appeal Judgement, 23
October 2001, ¶¶ 560-1.
68
et al. -96-21-T, Trial Judgement, 16 Nov. 1998, ¶ 439; Akayesu, TJ ¶
et al., Case No. IT-95-14/2-T, Trial Judgement, 26 Feb. 2001, ¶ 236.
69
-01-42-A, Appeal Judgement, 17 July 2008, ¶ 270.
70
Moinina Fofana et al. (CDF Case), Case No. SCSL-2003-11-T, Trial Judgement, 2 Aug. 2007, ¶ 144, citing
Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 326.
71
, TJ ¶ 385 (emphasis in the original).
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW & PRACTICE TRAINING MATERIALS ICLS
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Extermination is murder on a massive
scale. A person who murders someone
within the context of mass killing can
be guilty of extermination.
The elements of the crime of extermination are:
the killing of persons on a massive scale (actus reus); and
acts or omissions of either:
o killing on a large scale; or
o the subjection of a widespread number of people; or
o the systematic subjection of a number of people;
to conditions of living that would lead to their deaths (mens rea).
72
7.2.2.2.3.1. MASSIVE SCALE: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTERMINATION AND MURDER
Extermination is murder on a massive scale. A person who murders someone within the context
of mass killing can be guilty of extermination.
73
The ICTR appeals chamber has held that
[e]xtermination differs from murder in that it requires an element of mass destruction, which is
not required for murder
74
-
does not suggest a minimum number of killings
75
but should be determined on a case-by-case basis
using a common sense approach.
76
Extermination must also be collective, and not just
directed towards singled out individuals (except, unlike in genocide, the accused does not need
to intend to destroy a group or part of a group).
77
actus reus of extermination can be established
through an accumulation of separate and unrelated incidents, or on an aggregated basis.
78
It is
not required to precisely describe victims or designate victims by name.
79
72
-97-24-A, Appeal Judgement, 22 March 2006, ¶ 259.
73
ICC Elements of Crimes, Art. 7(1)(b)(2); Kayishema, TJ ¶ 147.
74
Elizaphan Ntakirutimana et al., Case No. ICTR-96-10-A and ICTR-96-17-A, Appeal Judgement, 13 Dec.
2004, ¶ 516.
75
, AJ ¶¶ 260-261; Ntakirutimana et al., AJ ¶ 516; Jean De Dieu Kamuhanda, Case No. ICTR-99-54A-
T, Trial Judgement, 22 Jan. 2004, ¶ 692; Juvénal Kajelijeli, Case No. ICTR-98-44A-T, Trial Judgement, 1 Dec.
2003, ¶ 891; Ignace Bagilishema, Case No. ICTR-95-1T, Trial Judgement, 7 June 2001, ¶ 87; Kayishema, TJ
¶ 142.
76
Kayishema, TJ ¶ 145.
77
, TJ ¶ 390.
78
, TJ ¶ 391; -98-33-T, Trial Judgement, 2 Aug. 2001, ¶ 501.
79
Ntakirutimana et al., AJ ¶¶ 518-9.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
20
MODULE 7
Extermination also includes the creation
of conditions of life that are calculated to
cause the destruction of part of the
population.
7.2.2.2.3.2. ACTUS REUS OF EXTERMINATION; INDIRECT OR REMOTE PARTICIPATION
AND SINGLE KILLING
Being involved in directly killing a person can constitute extermination. However, so can other
acts or omissions. Any indirect act or omission, or cumulative acts or omissions, which directly or
indirectly cause the death of the targeted group of individuals, can also constitute
extermination.
80
81
Often persons
with authority are therefore charged with extermination. In those cases, the accused, either
because of their position or authority, could decide the fate of or had control over a large
number of people.
82
However, it is not required that the prosecution prove that the person had
de facto control. Also, it is important to remember that otherspersons who do not have
authority or controlcan also be charged with extermination.
83
Extermination also includes the creation of
conditions of life that are calculated to cause the
destruction of part of the population. That means
the accused created circumstances that
ultimately caused mass death, such as
imprisoning a large number of people and
withholding the necessities of life, food and
medicine.
84
There is inconsistent case law on whether responsibility for a single or small or limited number
of killings is sufficient for a finding of extermination. ICTY and ICTR trial chambers have held that
.
85
In other cases, they
have held that a perpetrator may be guilty of extermination if he kills, or creates the conditions
of life that kills a single person, as long as he is aware that his act or omission forms part of a
mass killing event.
86
For a single killing to form part of extermination, the killing must actually
form part of a mass killing event.
87
in time and space.
88
For example, if numerous officers fire into a crowd killing everyone, and Officer X is a poor shot
and kills only a single person, whereas Officer Y kills sixteen people, both will be guilty of
80
Rutaganda, TJ ¶ 83; , TJ ¶ 389; Athanase Seromba, Case No. ICTR-2001-66-A, Appeal Judgement,
12 March 2008, ¶ 189.
81
Rutaganda, TJ ¶ 81; Kayishema, TJ ¶ 146.
82
, TJ ¶ 390; , TJ ¶¶ 222, 227; TJ ¶ 639.
83
AJ ¶¶ 256-257, citing Ntakirutimana et al., AJ ¶ 539.
84
Kayishema, TJ ¶ 146; , TJ ¶ 389.
85
, TJ ¶ 228; Sylvestre Gacumbitsi, Case No. ICTR-01-64, Trial Judgement, 17 June 2004, ¶ 309;
André Ntagerura et al., Case No. ICTR-96-10T, Trial Judgement, 1 Sept. 2009, ¶ 701.
86
Kayishema, TJ ¶ 147; Bagilishema, TJ ¶ 88.
87
Kayishema, TJ fn 49.
88
Ibid.
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No proof is required of the
existence of a plan or policy
to commit extermination or
that the killings were
tolerated by the state.
extermination because they participated in the mass killing and were both aware that their
actions formed part of the mass killing event.
89
At the ICC, it seems that a single killing would be sufficient.
90
7.2.2.2.3.3. MENS REA
As stated by the ICTY:
[T]he mens rea standard for extermination is the same as the mens rea required
prove beyond reasonable doubt that the accused had the intention to kill
persons on a massive scale or to create conditions of life that led to the death of
a large number of people. The mens rea standard required for extermination
does not include a threshold of negligence or gross
or omission must be done with intention or recklessness (dolus eventualis).
91
7.2.2.2.3.4. NO NEED TO PROVE PLAN OR POLICY
No proof is required of the existence of a plan or policy to
commit extermination or that the killings were tolerated by
the state.
92
The existence of such a plan or policy, or the
existence of state tolerance, may be important evidence that
the attack was widespread or systematic. If the accused had
knowledge that his action is part of a vast murderous
enterprise in which a larger number of individuals are
systematically marked for killing or killed, it will be taken as
systematic attack against a civilian population.
93
However, knowledge of a vast scheme of
collective murder is not an element required for extermination as a crime against humanity.
94
7.2.2.2.4. ENSLAVEMENT/SLAVERY
The definition of enslavement is based in part on the 1956 Slavery Convention.
89
Ibid. at ¶ 147.
90
ICC Elements of Crimes, Art. 7(1)(b)(1).
91
, TJ ¶ 395; See also AJ ¶¶ 252-261; , TJ ¶ 495; TJ ¶¶ 638, 642.
92
Sylvestre Gacumbitsi, Case No. ICTR-01-64-A, Appeal Judgement, 7 July 2006, ¶ 84.
93
, TJ ¶ 394; -98-33-A, Appeal Judgement, 19 April 2004, ¶ 225.
94
AJ ¶ 259.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
22
MODULE 7
The nature of the relationship
between the accused and victim is
key in enslavement.
The elements of enslavement are:
the exercise of any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership over a person
(actus reus), and
the intentional exercise of said powers (mens rea).
95
The ICTY has held that the elements of enslavement as a crime against humanity are the same as
the elements of slavery as a violation of the laws or customs of war.
96
For more on slavery as a
war crime, see Module 8.
7.2.2.2.4.1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACCUSED AND VICTIM
The nature of the relationship between the accused and victim is key to enslavement. Factors to
be considered in determining the nature of the relationship include:
97
;
control of the physical environment;
psychological control;
measures taken to prevent or deter escape;
force;
threat of force or coercion;
assertion of exclusivity;
subjection to cruel treatment and abuse;
control of sexuality;
control of forced labour; and
duration of that control.
It is usually insufficient just to show that a person was held in captivity. There must be another
indication of enslavement, such as exploitation, forced labour, sex, prostitution or human
trafficking.
98
7.2.2.2.4.2. DURATION NOT AN ELEMENT
The duration of enslavement is not an element of the crime, but can be evidence that a person
was enslaved.
99
7.2.2.2.4.3. TORTURE OR ILL-TREATMENT NOT ELEMENTS
The following passage about slavery equally applies to enslavement:
95
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶¶ 116-124.
96
Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 116; Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 350.
97
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶¶ 119-121, 356.
98
Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 542.
99
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶¶ 121, 356.
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Lack of consent is not an element
of enslavement. However, it can be
evidence of whether enslavement
was committed.
Slavery may exist even without torture. Slaves may be well fed, well clothed, and
comfortably housed, but they are still slaves if without lawful process they are
deprived of their freedom by forceful restraint. Even if all other elements which
often accompany slavery, such as ill-treatment, starvation, or beatings, were not
present or ignored, the fact of compulsory uncompensated labour would still
constitute slavery. Involuntary servitude, even if tempered by humane
treatment, is still slavery.
100
7.2.2.2.4.4. LACK OF CONSENT NOT AN ELEMENT
Lack of consent is not an element of enslavement.
However, it can be evidence of whether enslavement
was committed.
101
Lack of resistance does not mean a
person consented.
102
Circumstances that make it
impossible to express consent may be sufficient to
presume the absence of consent.
103
7.2.2.2.4.5. SEXUAL SLAVERY
Sexual slavery
104
is not listed as a separate underlying crime at the ICTY and ICTR, but it is at the
ICC and the SCSL (see Section 7.2.2.2.11, below). At the ICTY/ICTR, it is dealt with under
enslavement.
At the ICTY and ICTR, corroboration is not legally required; corroborative testimony only speaks
to weight. In terms of the intentional exercise of a power to the right of ownership, it is not
required to prove that the accused intended to detain the victims under constant control for a
prolonged period of time in order to use them for sexual acts.
7.2.2.2.4.6. FORCED LABOUR
Forced labour can constitute enslavement, and is a factor that can be considered when
determining whether enslavement was committed. The facts must establish that the victims had
no real choice about whether they would work.
105
However, this evidence must be objective
100
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶¶ 119-121, 356.
101
Ibid. at ¶ 120.
102
Ibid.
103
Ibid.
104
Ibid. at ¶¶ 122, 268. Elements of the Slavery Convention and Human Trafficking Convention are of
potential relevan
enslavement; See Alex Tamba Brima et al. -04-16-A, Appeal Judgement, 22
Feb. 2008, ¶¶ 175-203 on sexual slavery and forced marriage at SCSL and in ICL generally.
105
Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 359; See also Issa Hassan Sesay et al. (RUF Case), Case No. SCSL-04-15-T, Trial
Judgement, 25 Feb. 2009, ¶ 202.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
24
MODULE 7
The offence of deportation is
provided for in the ICTY Statute
whereas forcible transfer is
The distinction between the actus
destination of displacement.
consent.
106
7.2.2.2.5. DEPORTATION
The elements of deportation are:
forced displacement of persons by expulsion or other forms of coercion from the area in
which they are lawfully present, across a de jure state border or, in certain
circumstances, a de facto border, contrary to international law (actus reus);
with the intent to do so (mens rea).
107
It is not required that the perpetrator intended to displace the individuals permanently. There is
no requirement that a minimum number of persons are deported or displaced.
108
Moreover, the
109
7.2.2.2.5.1. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DEPORTATION AND FORCIBLE TRANSFER
The offence of deportation is provided for in the ICTY
Statute, whereas forcible transfer is prosecuted through
forced displacement of individuals from the area in
which they are lawfully present without grounds
permitted under international law. The protected
interests underlying the prohibition against deportation and forcible transfer are the same: the
right of victims to stay in their home and community and the right not to be deprived of their
property by being forcibly displaced to another location.
110
The distinction between the actus reus
The appeals chamber has found that under customary
international law, deportation consists of the forced
displacement of individuals beyond internationally
recognised state borders. In contrast, forcible transfer
may consist of forced displacement within state
106
Milorad Krnojelac, Case No. IT-97-25-A, Appeal Judgement, 17 Sept. 2003, ¶ 195; See also Sesay et al.
(RUF Case), TJ ¶ 202.
107
AJ ¶278, 279-307, 317.
108
, TJ, ¶ 685.
109
Ibid. at ¶ 687.
110
, AJ ¶ 277.
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borders.
111
When displacement occurs across a state border it is punishable as the CAH of
deportation; when displacement occurs within a state border it is punishable as CAH of other
inhumane acts through forcible transfer.
112
7.2.2.2.5.2. DE JURE VS DE FACTO BORDERS
As held by the ICTY:
The default principle under customary international law with respect to the
nature of the border is that there must be expulsion across a de jure border to
another country []. Customary international law also recognises that
Geneva Convention IV and as recognised by numerous UN Security Council
resolutions is also sufficient to amount to deportation [...]. Under certain
circumstances displacement across a de facto border may be sufficient to
amount to deportation. In general, the question of whether a particular de facto
border is sufficient for the purposes of the crime of deportation should be
examined on a case by case basis in light of customary international law.
113
7.2.2.2.5.3. DEPORTATION AND FORCIBLE TRANSPORT MUST BE UNLAWFUL
Deportation and forcible transfer occur when the displacement of the civilian population is
unlawful. So, lawful deportations of aliens present in the territory of a state will not qualify.
Further, Geneva Convention IV Article 49 and AP II Article 17 allow total or partial evacuation of
the population if their security or imperative military reasons so demand. However, Article 49
specifies that such evacuees must be transferred back to their homes as soon as hostilities in the
area have ceased. Failing that, such evacuation may amount to the CAH of deportation or
forcible transfer.
114
Although displacement for humanitarian reasons is justifiable in certain situations, it is not
justifiable where the humanitarian crisis that caused the displacement is itself the result of the
115
Assistance by humanitarian groups does not make the displacement lawful.
116
111
Ibid. at ¶ 278; See also , TJ ¶ 521; Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 474; Blagoje et al., Case No. IT-9509, Trial
Judgement, 17 Oct. 2003, ¶ 122; et al., TJ ¶ 670; , TJ ¶ 540.
112
, TJ ¶ 544.
113
, AJ ¶ 300.
114
, TJ ¶¶ 524-7.
115
, AJ ¶ 287.
116
, TJ ¶ 683.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
26
MODULE 7
For deportation and forcible
transfer, the displacement must
take place under coercion.
The displacement must be
involuntary in nature, where
the persons concerned had
no real choice.
7.2.2.2.5.4. PROOF OF COERCION
For deportation and forcible transfer, the displacement
must take place under coercion.
117
The essential
element in establishing coercion is that the
displacement must be involuntary in nature,
118
where
the persons concerned had no real choice.
119
Genuine choice cannot be inferred from the fact that consent was expressed or a request to
leave was made where the circumstances deprive the consent of any value.
120
An apparent
consent induced by force or threat of force should not be considered to be real consent.
121
For
example, fleeing in order to escape persecution or targeted violence is not a genuine choice.
122
A lack of genuine choice may be inferred from, inter alia,
threatening and intimidating acts that are calculated to
deprive the civilian population of exercising its free will. These
acts can include the shelling of civilian objects; the burning of
civilian property; and the commission ofor the threat to
commitother crimes, including threats of a sexual nature.
These crimes must be errify the population
and make them flee the area with no hope of return
123
7.2.2.2.6. IMPRISONMENT
Imprisonment as a CAH should be understood as arbitrary imprisonment, that is, the deprivation
of liberty of the individual without due process of law, as part of a widespread or systematic
attack directed against a civilian population.
124
The elements of the underlying offence of
imprisonment as a CAH are the same as the elements of unlawful confinement as a war crime.
125
See Module 8 for more information on this.
The elements of imprisonment are:
an individual is deprived of his liberty;
the deprivation of liberty is imposed arbitrarily, meaning, no legal basis can be invoked
to justify the deprivation of liberty;
117
Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 475; et al., TJ ¶ 519; , TJ ¶ 682.
118
, TJ ¶ 528; Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 475; et al., TJ ¶ 519.
119
Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 475; , TJ ¶ 543.
120
, AJ ¶279; Krnojelac, AJ ¶ 229.
121
Slobodan , Case No. IT-02-54-T, Trial Chamber Decision on Motion for Judgment of Acquittal,
16 June 2004, ¶ 73.
122
, TJ ¶ 530.
123
et al., TJ ¶ 126.
124
et al., AJ ¶¶ 115-6; See also et al., TJ ¶ 302.
125
et al., TJ ¶ 63.
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the act or omission by which the individual is deprived of his physical liberty is
performed by the accused or person(s) for whom the accused bears criminal
responsibility; and
the accused has intent to deprive the individual arbitrarily of his physical liberty or has
reasonable knowledge that his act or omission is likely to cause arbitrary deprivation of
physical liberty.
126
The Rome Statute
the CAH of imprisonment to demonstrate that house arrest and other forms could constitute
imprisonment.
127
The deprivation must be arbitrary. There are many forms of lawful arrest that would not qualify,
such as:
lawful arrest and detention;
conviction following trial;
lawful deportation or extradition;
quarantine;
assigned residence during armed conflict;
internment on security grounds during armed conflict; and
or internment of prisoners of war.
128
The ICTY has held that the deprivation of liberty must be without due process of law,
129
and the
rules of international law
130
However, it is recognised that small procedural errors would not be sufficient to constitute
fundamental rules of international law,
131
and the ICTY jurisprudence states that detention is
arbitrary wh to justify [it]
132
126
Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 115.
127
Rome Statute, Art. 7.
128
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of
Civilian Persons in Time of War, 75 UNTS 287, 12 August 1949, Arts. 5, 42, 43, available at
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b36d2.html (accessed 28 June 2011); Third Geneva
Convention, Arts. 21 32; See also CRYER, supra at p. 250.
129
et al., TJ ¶ 302.
130
ICC Elements of Crimes, Art. 7(1)(e)(1).
131
Ibid., Art. 7(1)(e)(2).
132
Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 14.
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MODULE 7
The seriousness of the pain or
suffering sets torture apart
from other forms of
mistreatment.
In assessing the seriousness of any mistreatment, the objective severity
of the harm inflicted must be considered including the nature, purpose
and consistency of the acts committed.
7.2.2.2.7. TORTURE
Torture, as defined in Article 1 of the 1984 Torture Convention (CAT), is prohibited by both
conventional and customary international law and constitutes a norm of jus cogens.
133
The ICL
definition is based on, but is not the same as, the CAT definition.
7.2.2.2.7.1. ELEMENTS
Various ICTY and ICTR judgements have considered torture as grave breaches of the Geneva
Conventions, violations of the laws or customs of war (a separate category in the ICTY Statute)
and as CAH.
134
Except at the ICC, the definition of torture remains the same regardless of the
category of atrocity crime it is charged as.
135
The elements of torture are:
the infliction, by act or omission, of severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental;
the act or omission must be intentional; and
it must aim at obtaining information or a confession, or at punishing, intimidating,
humiliating or coercing the victim or a third person, or at discriminating, on any ground,
against the victim or a third person.
136
7.2.2.2.7.2. SEVERE PAIN OR SUFFERING
The seriousness of the pain or suffering sets torture apart
from other forms of mistreatment.
In assessing the seriousness of any mistreatment, the
objective severity of the harm inflicted must be considered,
including the nature, purpose and consistency of the acts
committed.
137
133
, TJ ¶¶ 452-459; IT-95-17/1-T, Trial Judgement, 10 Dec. 1998, ¶¶ 137-
146, 153-157; -95-17/1-A, Appeal Judgement, 21 July 2000, ¶ 111.
134
See, e.g., , TJ; , TJ; Kunarac et al., TJet al., Case No. IT-98-30/1-T,
Trial Judgement, 2 Nov. 2001.
135
, TJ ¶ 482. Regarding the ICC, see infra note 144 and related text.
136
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶¶ 142-148 (clarifying , AJ ¶ 111 and , TJ ¶ 494; Fatmir Limaj et al.,
Case No. IT-03-66-T, Trial Judgement, 30 Nov. 2005, ¶¶ 234-240.
137
, TJ ¶ 484.
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Relevant subjective criteria for assessing the gravity of the harm include:
the physical or mental condition of the victim;
the effect of the treatment;
; or
the
138
Permanent injury is not a requirement for torture and evidence of the suffering need not be
visible after the commission of the crime.
139
7.2.2.2.7.3. PROHIBITED PURPOSE
Under customary international law it is not settled whether torture as a CAH requires the act to
be committed with a specific purpose.
140
The ICTY and ICTR require the purpose element.
Indeed, ICTY and ICTR jurisprudence considers the purpose element as the distinguishing feature
of torture as opposed to inhumane treatment.
141
The CAT definition requires that the act be committed with a specific purpose, such as obtaining
information or a confession from the victim or a third person, punishing the victim for an act the
victim or a third person has committed or is suspected of having committed, or intimidating or
coercing the victim or a third person, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind. This
is not an exhaustive list.
Moreover, the prohibited purpose does not need to be the only reason for the torture, but it
must be part of the motive.
142
If one prohibited purpose is fulfilled by the conduct, it is
immaterial if the conduct was also intended to achieve another purpose (even of a sexual
nature).
143
The ICC Elements of Crimes h respect to torture as a war
crime but not as a crime against humanity.
144
7.2.2.2.7.4. OFFICIAL SANCTION NOT AN ELEMENT OF TORTURE IN ICL
Article 1 of the CAT
138
Ibid.
139
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶¶ 149-150; , TJ ¶ ¶ 483-4.
140
CRYER, supra at p. 252.
141
Akayesu, TJ ¶¶ 593-5; , TJ ¶ 459; , TJ ¶ 161; Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 180.
142
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 155, et al., TJ ¶ 153; , TJ ¶ 470.
143
, TJ ¶¶ 470, 472; , TJ ¶¶ 486-7; Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 155.
144
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MODULE 7
There is no public official requirement
under customary international law
relating to the criminal responsibility
of an individual for torture.
Acts or omissions can
constitute torture.
international law in so far as states and their conduct are concerned. It is based on human rights
law, and the idea that human rights are violated by states or government.
However, outside the CAT framework, there is no public official requirement under customary
international law relating to the criminal
responsibility of an individual for torture.
145
There is
no requirement that the perpetrator is a public
official, or that torture was committed in the
presence of an official. The ICC does not require a link
between an official and the act of torture.
146
It is the
relationship to the state.
7.2.2.2.7.5. CUSTODY AND CONTROL (ICC)
At the ICC, there is an additiona
the perpetrator.
147
7.2.2.2.7.6. ACTS CONSTITUTING TORTURE, AND RAPE AND SEXUAL ABUSE AS TORTURE
Both acts or omissions can constitute torture. Omissions may
provide the requisite material element, provided that the mental
or physical suffering caused meets the required level of severity
and that the omission was intentional and not, when judged
objectively, accidental.
148
The following acts have been found to constitute torture:
149
beatings;
extraction of nails, teeth, etc.;
burns;
electric shocks;
suspension;
suffocation;
exposure to excessive light or noise;
administration of drugs in detention or psychiatric institutions;
prolonged denial of rest or sleep;
prolonged denial of food;
145
See, e.g., Kunarac et al., AJ ¶¶ 142-8; et al., Case No. IT-98-30/1-A, Appeal Judgement,
28 Feb. 2005, ¶ 284.
146
ICC Elements of Crimes, Art. 7(2)(e).
147
Ibid., Art. 7(1)(f)(2).
148
, TJ ¶ 468.
149
See, e.g., , TJ ¶¶ 461-469; , AJ ¶ 113.
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Acts of torture embrace all serious abuses of a
sexual nature inflicted upon the physical and
moral integrity of a person by means of
coercion, threat of force or intimidation in a
way that is degrading and humiliating for the
prolonged denial of sufficient hygiene;
prolonged denial of medical assistance;
total isolation and sensory deprivation;
being kept in constant uncertainty in terms of space and time;
threats to torture;
the killing of relatives;
total abandonment;
simulated executions;
being held incommunicado;
rape;
sexual aggression;
insert the knife into her vagina;
being paraded naked in humiliating circumstances; and
being forced to watch someone being sexually assaulted.
Acts of torture embrace all serious abuses of
a sexual nature inflicted upon the physical
and moral integrity of a person by means of
coercion, threat of force or intimidation in a
way that is degrading and humiliating for the
150
Some acts per se establish the requisite level
of suffering to qualify as torture. Rape is
such an act.
151
Severe pain or suffering can thus be said to be established once rape has been
proved, since the act of rape necessarily implies such pain or suffering; sexual violence
necessarily gives rise to severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, and in this way
justifies its characterisation as an act of torture.
152
It should be noted that other acts of sexual
violence can be charged as either persecution or other inhuman acts.
153
7.2.2.2.8. RAPE
The actus reus of the crime of rape at the ICTY is:
the sexual penetration, however slight
o of the vagina or anus of the victim by the penis of the perpetrator or any other
object used by the perpetrator or
150
, TJ ¶ 186.
151
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶¶ 150-1.
152
, TJ ¶¶ 495-496; , TJ ¶ 485; Kunarac et al., AJ ¶¶ 150-1; Akayesu, TJ ¶ 596; , TJ
¶¶ 163, 171.
153
et al. ), Case No. IT-05-87-T, Trial Judgement, 26 Feb. 2009, ¶¶ 194
201.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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MODULE 7
o of the mouth of the victim by the penis of the perpetrator,
154
without the consent of the victim.
155
At the ICTY, the mens rea is the intention to effect this sexual penetration, and the knowledge
that it occurs without the consent of the victim.
156
The ICC Elements of Crimes defines the crime of rape is defined as:
The perpetrator invaded the body of a person by conduct resulting in penetration,
however slight,
o of any part of the body of the victim or of the perpetrator with a sexual organ, or
o of the anal or genital opening of the victim with any object or any other part of the
body.
157
By force, or
By threat of force or coercion, such as that caused by fear of violence, duress, detention,
psychological oppression or abuse of power, against such person or another person, or
by taking advantage of a coercive environment, or the invasion was committed against a
person incapable of giving genuine consent.
158
The mens rea is controlled by Article 30 of the Rome Statute. This means the perpetrator must
have acted with intent and knowledgethe perpetrator must have intended to penetrate the
wever,
nothing in the Elements or Statutes indicates that the perpetrator needed to have any
knowledge regarding the consent of the victim.
The definition of the conduct is more gender-neutral and broad than at the ICTY. However, the
could be more complicated to prove than the simpler requirement of
lack of consent. Notably, the ICC RPE includes rules of evidence related to consent, so it is
possible that the ICC judges could conclude that the Elements of Crimes do not reflect a correct
reading of the Rome Statute.
The same definition of rape applies as a crime against humanity and as a war crime. See Module
8 for a discussion of rape as a war crime.
154
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 127.
155
Ibid. at ¶ 129; See also CRYER, supra at pp. 254 255. Early ICTY jurisprudence applied a coercion
requirement, but after conducting an analysis of various legal systems, it was established by the Appeals
Chamber that lack of consent was the correct element.
156
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶127; , TJ ¶ 755; Gacumbitsi, AJ ¶¶ 147-157.
157
ICC Elements of Crimes, Art. 7(1)(g)-1(1).
158
Ibid., Art. 7(1)(g)-2(2).
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While force or threat of force provides clear
evidence of non-consent, it is not an element
per se of the crime of rape.
There is no requirement that the
victim provide continuous resistance
in order to provide adequate notice to
the perpetrator that his attentions
are non-consensual
7.2.2.2.8.1. MEANING OF CONSENT
Consent must be given voluntarily, as the
free will, assessed in
the context of the surrounding
circumstances.
159
Force or threat of force may be relevant to
demonstrate a clear lack of consent.
160
While force or threat of force provides clear evidence of
non-consent, it is not an element per se of the crime of rape at the ICTY. A narrow focus on force
or threat of force could permit perpetrators to evade liability for sexual activity to which the
other party had not consented by taking advantage of coercive circumstances without relying on
physical force.
161
7.2.2.2.8.2. NO NEED TO PROVE RESISTANCE
There is no requirement that the victim provide
continuous resistance in order to provide adequate
notice to the perpetrator that the sexual activity is
non-consensual. However, evidence of resistance
could support a finding that the sexual penetration
occurred without the consent of the victim and that
the perpetrator knew that it occurred without
consent.
162
7.2.2.2.9. PERSECUTIONS ON POLITICAL, RACIAL AND RELIGIOUS GROUNDS
Persecution is defined as an act or omission which:
discriminates in fact and which denies or infringes upon a fundamental right laid down in
international customary or treaty law (actus reus); and
was carried out deliberately with the intention to discriminate on one of the listed
grounds (mens rea).
163
At the ICTY and ICTR, grounds for discrimination can be political, racial or religious. In addition to
these, the Rome Statute includes national, ethical
universally recognized as impermissible under international law
164
159
Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 460; Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 128.
160
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 129.
161
Ibid.; , TJ ¶ 755.
162
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶¶ 128-129.
163
, AJ ¶ 131; Krnojelac, AJ ¶ 185; , TJ ¶ 992.
164
Rome Statute, Art. 7(1)(b).
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MODULE 7
Persecution derives its unique
character from the requirement
of a specific discriminatory intent.
Acts amounting to persecution may
include any of the acts listed as CAH.
However, they can also include other
acts which rise to the same level of
gravity or seriousness, when
committed with discriminatory intent.
Although persecution often refers to a series of acts, at the ICTY a single act may be sufficient, as
long as this act or omission discriminates in fact and was carried out deliberately with the
intention to discriminate on one of the listed grounds.
165
However, the Rome Statute requires
that the persecution be committed in connection with at least another crime against humanity
or crime within the jurisdiction of the ICC.
166
7.2.2.2.9.1. DISCRIMINATORY INTENT
The crime of persecution derives its unique character
from the requirement of a specific discriminatory intent.
It is insufficient for the accused to be aware that he is in
fact acting in a discriminatory way; he must consciously
intend to discriminate on one of the listed bases.
167
7.2.2.2.9.2. DISCRIMINATORY NATURE OF THE ACT
A discriminatory act exists where a person is targeted on the basis of religious, political or racial
considerations, i.e. for his membership in a certain victim group that is targeted by the
perpetrator. It is not necessary that the victim belong to the group targeted by the
perpetrator.
168
However, it must be established that the act did in fact discriminate against the
person based on one of these grounds.
7.2.2.2.9.3. ACTS AMOUNTING TO PERSECUTION
Persecution as a CAH can encompass various forms
of conduct. Acts amounting to persecution may
include any of the acts listed as CAH. However,
they can also include other acts which rise to the
same level of gravity or seriousness, when
committed with discriminatory intent,
169
including
other crimes listed in the ICTY statute as well as
acts which are not necessarily crimes in and of
themselves. This approach is to be distinguished
from that taken at in the Rome Statute, which requires a nexus with another crime within the
jurisdiction of the ICC.
Acts which have been found to amount to persecution include:
170
165
, AJ ¶113; , AJ ¶ 135.
166
Rome Statute, Art. 7(1)(h).
167
Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 435; et al., TJ ¶ 212.
168
Krnojelac, AJ ¶ 185; , TJ ¶ 993.
169
, AJ ¶¶ 138-9.
170
See, e.g., , TJ ¶¶ 994, 1005, 1012, 1014, 1023, 1025, 1049; , AJ ¶¶ 149, 153, 155, 159;
, TJ ¶ 757; et al., AJ ¶¶ 323-5; Nahimana, AJ ¶¶ 986-7.
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Separately or combined, the acts must
amount to persecution, though it is
not required that each alleged
underlying act be regarded as a
violation of international law
deportation, forcible transfer or displacement;
destruction of property, including religious buildings;
171
attacks in which civilians are targeted, as well as indiscriminate attacks on cities, towns,
and villages;
detention of civilians who were killed, used as human shields, beaten, subjected to
overcrowding, physical or psychological abuse and intimidation, inhumane treatment or
deprived of adequate food and water;
humiliating and degrading treatment;
any sexual assault falling short of rape, embracing all serious abuses of a sexual
nature;
172
denial of fundamental rights such as the rights to employment, freedom of movement,
proper judicial process and proper medical care;
violations of human dignity such as harassment, humiliation and psychological abuses
hate speech, on the basis that it violates the right to human dignity and the right to
security; and
forced labour, excluding work (even if forced) required or permitted in the ordinary
course of lawful detention, but including forced labour assignments which require
civilians to take part in military operations or which result in exposing civilians to
dangerous or humiliating conditions amounting to cruel and inhumane treatment.
173
At the ICTY, acts of persecution, considered
separately or together, must reach the level of
gravity of other crimes against humanity.
174
In
determining whether this threshold is met, acts
should not be considered in isolation but should be
examined in their context and with consideration of
their cumulative effect. Separately or combined, the
acts must amount to persecution, though it is not
required that each alleged underlying act be
regarded as a violation of international law.
175
Conversely, the mere fact that an infringement of
rights was committed with discriminatory intent does not mean it is grave enough to be
considered persecution.
176
It is not clear whether the ICC will adopt this same approach or
whether the Rome Statute
crimes will be interpreted differently.
171
Before the ICTY it has been held that destruction of cultural and religious property can constitute
persecution even though it is not specifically listed under Art. 5 of the Statute, See
Case No. IT-05-87/1-T, Trial Judgement, 23 Feb. 2011, ¶¶ 1770-1774; et al., AJ ¶ 834.
172
See, e.g., TJ ¶¶ 194 201.
173
See, e.g., Council of Europe, European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms, 4 Nov. 1950, ETS 5, Art. 4(3), available at
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3b04.html (accessed 28 June 2011); Krnojelac, AJ ¶ 200;
Third Geneva Convention, Art. 52(2); et al., TJ ¶¶ 91-93.
174
, AJ ¶ 135.
175
Krnojelac, AJ, Separate Opinion ¶¶ 5-7; , TJ ¶ 995.
176
Ibid. at ¶¶ 135, 138; et al., TJ ¶ 635.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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MODULE 7
Other inhumane acts include CAH that are not
otherwise specified in the ICTY and ICTR
Statutes, but are of comparable seriousness.
7.2.2.2.9.4. NO REQUIREMENT OF DISCRIMINATORY POLICY
There is no requirement that a discriminatory policy exists or that, in the event that such a policy
is shown to have existed, the accused needs to have taken part in the formulation of such
discriminatory policy or practice.
177
7.2.2.2.10. OTHER INHUMANE ACTS
The ICTY Appeals Chamber stated that ICTY
Statute Article 5(i), covering other
inhumane acts, was
designed as a residual category, as it was
felt undesirable for this category to be
exhaustively enumerated. An exhaustive
categorization would merely create
opportunities for evasion of the letter of the prohibition
178
Other inhumane acts include those
crimes against humanity that are not otherwise specified in the ICTY and ICTR Statutes, but are
of comparable seriousness.
The elements of other inhumane acts are:
the occurrence of an act or omission of similar seriousness to the other enumerated
acts;
the act or omission caused serious mental or physical suffering or injury or constituted a
serious attack on human dignity; and
the act or omission was performed deliberately by the accused or person(s) for whose
acts and omissions he bears criminal responsibility.
179
In the Rome Statute, there is a threshold that other inhuman acts must:
be of similar character to other prohibited acts; and
cause great suffering or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health.
180
Examples of other inhumane acts are:
181
177
, TJ ¶ 996.
178
, AJ ¶¶ 315-6. See also Brima, AJ ¶ 183.
179
et al., AJ ¶ 117; , TJ ¶ 152; See also et al., TJ ¶ 247; Kayishema, TJ ¶¶ 150-1, 154;
Akayesu, TJ ¶ 585.
180
Rome Statute, Art. 7(1)(k).
181
See, e.g., Akayesu, TJ ¶ 697; et al., TJ ¶ 78; , AJ ¶ 317; Brima AJ ¶ 184.
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At the time of the act or omission, the
offender must have the intention to inflict
serious physical or mental suffering or to
commit a serious attack upon the human
dignity of the victim, or knew that his act or
omission was likely to cause serious physical
or mental suffering or a serous attack upon
human dignity.
Sexual slavery, although a
separate crime, is a form of
enslavement.
sexual violence (which is not limited to physical invasion of the body and may include acts
which do not involve penetration or even physical contact, e.g. forced undressing of
women in coercive and humiliating circumstances);
forced undressing of women and marching them in public;
beatings; and
forcible transfer, i.e. the forced displacement of civilians which may occur within a state
border; this displacement need not be permanent.
Some of these examples, recognise e acts have been
specifically defined by the ICC as crimes against humanity.
7.2.2.2.10.1. ASSESSING SERIOUSNESS
In order to assess the seriousness of an inhumane act or omission, consideration must be given
to all the factual circumstances of the case. These may include the nature of the act or omission,
the context in which it occurred, the personal circumstances of the victim including age, sex, and
health, and the physical, mental, and moral effects of the act or omission upon the victim.
182
7.2.2.2.10.2. MENS REA
The offender must intend to inflict inhumane
acts. At the time of the act or omission, the
offender had the intention to inflict serious
physical or mental suffering or to commit a
serious attack upon the human dignity of the
victim, or knew that his act or omission was
likely to cause serious physical or mental
suffering or a serious attack upon human
dignity.
183
It is not required that the accused
184
7.2.2.2.11. SEXUAL SLAVERY
Sexual slavery is not a separate crime at the ICTY and ICTR,
although cases that could qualify as sexual slavery have been
tried under charges of enslavement.
185
Sexual slavery,
although a separate crime, is a form of enslavement. The first
element of sexual slavery is therefore the same as
enslavement, and the second element reflects the sexual
182
, TJ ¶ 153; Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 131; ¶ 536; Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 501.
183
, TJ ¶ 154; , TJ ¶ 236; Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 132; Kayishema, TJ ¶ 153.
184
, TJ ¶ 543.
185
See, e.g., Kunarac, AJ ¶ 119; Kunarac, TJ, ¶ 539 543 .
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
38
MODULE 7
component of the crime:
The perpetrator exercised any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership
over one or more persons, such as by purchasing, selling, lending or bartering such a
person or persons, or by imposing on them a similar deprivation of liberty.
The perpetrator caused such person or persons to engage in one or more acts of a
sexual nature.
186
Sexual slavery encompasses human trafficking.
187
The drafters of the Rome Statute noted that
sexual slavery could involve more than one perpetrator as part of a common criminal purpose.
188
It was also noted that the deprivation of liberty could also include forced labour.
189
Sexual
slavery could also include forced marriages.
The Court of BiH has referred to the Rome Statute in articulating a definition of sexual slavery.
190
7.2.2.2.12. ENFORCED PROSTITUTION
The Geneva Conventions iur (GC
IV 1949) or as an outrage upon personal dignity (AP I). In the Rome Statute, it was included as a
separate crime. The elements of enforced prostitution are:
The perpetrator caused one or more persons to engage in one or more acts of a sexual
nature by force, or by threat of force or coercion, such as that caused by fear of
violence, duress, detention, psychological oppression or abuse of power, against such
person or persons or another person, or by taking advantage of a coercive environment
The perpetrator or another person obtained or expected to obtain pecuniary or other
advantage in exchange for or in connection with the acts of a sexual nature.
191
7.2.2.2.13. FORCED PREGNANCY
Forced pregnancy is a crime against humanity in the Rome Statute. It was also recognised in the
Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action and the Beijing Declaration and Platform for
Action.
192
186
ICC Elements of Crimes, Art. 7(1)(g)-2 fn 18.
187
Ibid.
188
Ibid. at 7(1)(g)-2, fn 17.
189
Ibid. at 7(1)(g)-2 fn 18.
190
See -KR-07/442, 1st Instance Verdict, 30 Oct. 2009, ¶ 512
(relevant part upheld on appeal).
191
ICC Elements of Crimes, Art. 7 (1) (g)-3.
192
Vienna Declaration, World Conference on Human Rights, UN Doc. A/CONF.157/24 (1993) Part II, ¶ 38;
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, Fourth World Conference on Women, 15 Sept. 1995,
A/CONF.177/20 (1995) and A/CONF.17720/Add.1 (1995) Chapter II, ¶ 115.
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To convict a person of forced pregnancy, the prosecutor must prove that the perpetrator
confined one or more women forcibly made pregnant, with the intent of affecting the ethnic
composition of any population or carrying out other grave violations of international law.
193
The
law does not affect national laws relating to pregnancy and abortion,
194
but reflects cases where
captors have impregnated women and held them until it was too late to have an abortion.
195
7.2.2.2.14. ENFORCED STERILIZATION
No treaty before the Rome Statute recognised enforced sterilization as a crime against humanity
and war crime. The ICC Elements of Crimes defines the crime as:
The perpetrator deprived one or more persons of biological reproductive capacity.
The conduct was neither justified by the medical or hospital treatment of the person or
persons concerned nor carried out with their genuine consent.
196
The drafters to the Rome Statute did not mean to include non-permanent birth-control methods
within the definition of this crime. They also recognised that genuine consent is not given when
the victim has been deceived.
197
7.2.2.2.15. SEXUAL VIOLENCE
When considering crimes against humanity, a
198
requirement of gravity equal to that of other crimes against humanity enumerated in Article 5 of
199
The chamber found that the elements of sexual assault as a form of persecution as a crime
against humanity are:
The physical perpetrator commits an act of a sexual nature on another, including
requiring that person to perform such an act.
personal dignity.
The victim does not consent to the act.
193
ICC Elements of Crimes, Art. 7 (1) (g)-4.
194
ICC Rome Statute, Art. 7(2)(f).
195
See, e.g., Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution
780 (1992), transmitted to the Security Council by a letter from the Secretary-General to the President of
the Security Council dated 27 May 1994 (S/1994/674), ¶¶ 248 250.
196
ICC Elements of Crimes, Art. 7 (1) (g)-5.
197
Ibid. at fns 19 20.
198
, TJ ¶ 192.
199
Ibid. at ¶ 193.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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MODULE 7
Enforced disappearance has been
recognised as a crime against
humanity in several international
declarations and conventions.
The physical perpetrator intentionally commits the act.
The physical perpetrator is aware that the act occurred without the consent of the
victim.
200
in the Rome Statute.
The ICC defines the crime as:
(1) The perpetrator committed an act of a sexual nature against one or more persons or
caused such person or persons to engage in an act of a sexual nature by force, or by
threat of force or coercion, such as that caused by fear of violence, duress, detention,
psychological oppression or abuse of power, against such person or persons or another
incapacity to give genuine consent.
(2) Such conduct was of a gravity comparable to the other offences in article 7, paragraph 1
(g), of the Statute.
(3) The perpetrator was aware of the factual circumstances that established the gravity of
the conduct.
201
7.2.2.2.16. ENFORCED DISAPPEARANCE
Enforced disappearance has been recognised as a crime
against humanity in several international declarations
and conventions.
202
These conventions helped inform the
ICC definition of the crime, which is:
200
Ibid. at ¶ 201, See also ¶¶ 194 201 for a discussion of these elements.
201
ICC Elements of Crimes, Art. 7(1)(g)-6.
202
Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearances, G.A. res. 47/133, 47 U.N.
GAOR Supp. (No. 49) at 207, U.N. Doc. A/47/49 (1992); Inter-American Convention on Forced
Disappearance of Persons, 33 I.L.M. 1429 (1994); International Convention for the Protection of All
Persons from Enforced Disappearance, E/CN.4/2005/WG.22/WP.1/Rev.4 (2005).
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The underlying act of detention can
include maintaining a detention that
has already taken place, which could
have been lawful.
The ICC definition does not require that the perpetrator be involved in both detaining and
refusing information about the victim. A person can be guilty of enforced disappearance if they
either detained a person, knowing it was likely that there would be no acknowledgment or
information provided, or if they refused
acknowledge a detention or provide information
about it, knowing that a detention had likely taken
place.
The underlying act of detention can include
maintaining a detention that has already taken
place, which could have been lawful. If the
ICC Definition of Enforced Disappearance
1. The perpetrator:
(a) Arrested, detained or abducted one or more persons; or
(b) Refused to acknowledge the arrest, detention or abduction, or to give
information on the fate or whereabouts of such person or persons.
2. (a) Such arrest, detention or abduction was followed or accompanied by a
refusal to acknowledge that deprivation of freedom or to give information on
the fate or whereabouts of such person or persons; or
(b) Such refusal was preceded or accompanied by that deprivation of
freedom.
3. The perpetrator was aware that:
(a) Such arrest, detention or abduction would be followed in the ordinary
course of events by a refusal to acknowledge that deprivation of freedom
or to give information on the fate or whereabouts of such person or
persons; or
(b) Such refusal was preceded or accompanied by that deprivation of
freedom.
4. Such arrest, detention or abduction was carried out by, or with the
authorization, support or acquiescence of, a State or a political organization.
5. Such refusal to acknowledge that deprivation of freedom or to give
information on the fate or whereabouts of such person or persons was carried
out by, or with the authorization or support of, such State or political
organization.
6. The perpetrator intended to remove such person or persons from the
protection of the law for a prolonged period of time.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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MODULE 7
perpetrator maintains a detention in these circumstances, the perpetrator would have to know
that the refusal to acknowledge or give information about the arrest had already taken place.
203
7.2.2.2.17. APARTHEID
The Rome Statute also includes apartheid as a crime against humanity. Although apartheid has
long been recognised as a crime against humanity,
204
the ICC definition broadened the crime to
include situations beyond that which occurred in South Africa.
in the context of apartheid can include murder, torture, arbitrary detention,
persecution, conditions calculated to cause the destruction of a group or legislative measures to
, etc. At the
ICC, apartheid is a specific intent crime, requiring that the perpetrator intend to maintain a
regime of systematic oppression through the commission of inhumane acts.
203
ICC Elements of Crimes, fns 25 28.
204
See, e.g., Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes
Against Humanity, G.A. res. 2391 (XXIII), annex, 23 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 18) at 40, U.N. Doc. A/7218
(1968); UN General Assembly, International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime
available at
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3c00.html (accessed 28 June 2011).
ICC Definition of Apartheid
1. The perpetrator committed an inhumane act against one or more persons.
2. Such act was an act referred to in article 7, paragraph 1, of the Statute, or was an
act of a character similar to any of those acts.
3. The perpetrator was aware of the factual circumstances that established the
character of the act.
4. The conduct was committed in the context of an institutionalized regime of
systematic oppression and domination by one racial group over any other racial
group or groups.
5. The perpetrator intended to maintain such regime by that conduct.
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7.2.2.3. CONCLUDING COMMENTS: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CAH AND WAR CRIMES
War crimes and CAH may overlap. For example, a mass killing of civilians can be both a war
crime and CAH. The main differences between a war crime and CAH include:
War crimes require a nexus to an armed conflict, whereas a CAH do not (despite CAH
often being committed during armed conflicts), but CAH require an attack on civilian
populations;
War crimes focus on the protection of certain protected groups, including enemy
nationals, whereas CAH protect victims regardless of nationality of affiliation to the
conflict; and
War crimes regulate conduct on the battlefield and military objectives, whereas CAH
regulate actions against civilian populations.
Notes for trainers:
It would be useful for participants at the end of this section to consider the
differences between crimes against humanity and war crimes so that they develop
a holistic understanding of all of the crimes prohibited under international
criminal law. The historic development of crimes against humanity should prove
useful in drawing the attention of participants to some of the differences.
Participants can be encouraged to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
charging crimes against humanity as opposed to war crimes, and vice-versa, as
well as the ways in which both crimes can be charged together.
Trainers should be aware that the next Module, Module 8, deals with war crimes,
and it might be useful to have this discussion after that Module has been covered.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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7.3. REGIONAL LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE
Notes for trainers:
The Module now shifts to focus on the national laws of BiH, Croatia and Serbia.
However, it is not recommended to discuss the regional sections in isolation while
training this Module. For that reason, cross references should be made between the
international section and the main regional laws and developments. The sections
that follow provide a basis for more in-depth discussion about the national laws
with practitioners who will be implementing them in their domestic courts.
It is important for participants to have in mind that only the Court of BiH, which
applies the BiH CC, has prosecuted crimes against humanity. The entity level courts
in BiH and the courts in Croatia and Serbia have not prosecuted crimes against
humanity. It is for this reason that the BiH section is longer than those for Croatia
and Serbia.
Trainers should bear in mind that Module 5 provides an in-depth overview of the
way in which international law is incorporated within the national laws. For this
reason, such issues are not dealt with in detail in this section of this Module, and it
would be most helpful to have trained Module 5 in advance of Modules that deal
with substantive crimes.
Tip to trainers: One effective method to engage the participants is to ask them to
analyse one of the most important cases that has occurred in their domestic
jurisdiction. Some cases have been cited below, but others may be raised by the
participants themselves or provided by the trainers.
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7.4. BIH
7.4.1. OVERVIEW
The BiH Criminal Code is generally applied only by the Court of BiH for crimes arising from the
conflicts in the former Yugoslavia. When trying war crimes cases arising out of the conflicts in
the former Yugoslavia, the BiH entity level courts and District courts generally apply the
adopted SFRY Criminal Code.
205
To date, no cases involving crimes against humanity have been
delegated to the entity level courts or District courts. The SFRY CC does not contain any
205
For more on this see Module 5.
Notes for trainers:
This section covers the prosecution of crimes against humanity in BiH. Only
the Court of BiH, which generally applies the BiH Criminal Code, has
prosecuted crimes against humanity. The jurisprudence from this court is
outlined in this section.
Participants should be encouraged to assess this jurisprudence and how it will
be applied in the future.
As the BiH entity level courts have not prosecuted crimes against humanity,
participants from these jurisdictions should consider whether such crimes
could be prosecuted in the future and in what way.
This section is structured in the same way as the section on the applicable
international law in that the general contextual elements of crimes against
humanity are discussed first, followed an analysis of each of the underlying
crimes that could constitute crimes against humanity.
In order to facilitate discussion, participants could be asked to address certain
questions, such as:
o Is it necessary to prove an underlying state or non-state policy or plan for
crimes against humanity?
o If soldiers have laid down their arms or are not fighting as soldiers, should
their presence in the civilian population be taken into account when
deciding whether crimes against humanity have been committed?
o Should the crime of enforced disappearance be tried only as a crime
against humanity, as a war crime, or as a separate offence?
o Is there a distinction between the crimes of deportation and forcible
transfer, and should that be taken into account in the prosecution of these
crimes?
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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MODULE 7
provisions relating to crimes against humanity. Crimes against humanity cases are, therefore,
tried only before the Court of BiH.
Article 172 of the BiH Criminal Code
206
includes provisions on crimes against humanity:
206
BiH Official Gazette, No. 03/03, 32/03, 37/03, 54/04, 61/04, 30/05, 53/06, 55/06, 32/07, 08/10,
consolidated version, available at www.sudbih.gov.ba.
Article 172, Paragraph 1 of the BiH Criminal Code
Whoever, as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian
population, with knowledge of such an attack perpetrates any of the following acts:
a) Depriving another person of his life (murder);
b) Extermination;
c) Enslavement;
d) Deportation or forcible transfer of population;
e) Imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty in violation of
fundamental rules of international law;
f) Torture;
g) Coercing another by force or by threat of immediate attack upon his life or limb, or
the life or limb of a person close to him, to sexual intercourse or an equivalent sexual
act (rape), sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced
sterilisation or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity;
h) Persecutions against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial,
national, ethnic, cultural, religious or sexual gender or other grounds that are
universally recognised as impermissible under international law, in connection with
any offence listed in this paragraph of this Code, any offence listed in this Code or any
offence falling under the competence of the Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina;
i) Enforced disappearance of persons;
j) The crime of apartheid;
k) Other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering, or
serious injury to body or to physical or mental health,
shall be punished by imprisonment for a term not less than ten years or long-term
imprisonment.
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Article 172(2) provides the relevant definitions:
Article 172, Paragraph 2of the BiH Criminal Code
For the purpose of paragraph 1 of this Article the following terms shall have the following
meanings:
a) Attack directed against any civilian population means a course of conduct involving the
multiple perpetrations of acts referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article against any civilian
population, pursuant to or in furtherance of a State or organisational policy to commit
such attack.
b) Extermination includes the intentional infliction of conditions of life, especially
deprivation of access to food and medicines, calculated to bring about the destruction of
part of a population.
c) Enslavement means the exercise of any or all of the powers attaching to the right of
ownership over a person, and includes the exercise of such power in the course of
trafficking in persons, in particular women and children.
d) Deportation or forcible transfer of population means forced displacement of the persons
concerned by expulsion or other coercive acts from the area in which they are lawfully
present, without grounds permitted under international law.
e) Torture means the intentional infliction of severe pain or suffering, whether physical or
mental, upon a person in the custody or under control of the perpetrator except that
torture shall not include pain or suffering arising only from, or being inherent in or
incidental to, lawful sanctions.
f) Forced pregnancy means the unlawful confinement of a woman forcibly made pregnant,
with the intent of affecting the ethnic composition of any population or carrying out other
grave violations of international law.
g) Persecution means the intentional and severe deprivation of fundamental rights,
contrary to international law, by reason of the identity of a group or collectivity.
h) Enforced disappearance of persons means the arrest, detention or abduction of persons
by, or with the authorisation, support or acquiescence of, a State or a political
organisation, followed by a refusal to acknowledge that deprivation of freedom or to give
information on the fate or whereabouts of those persons, with an aim of removing them
from the protection of the law for a prolonged period of time.
(i) The crime of apartheid means inhumane acts of a character similar to those referred to
in paragraph 1 of this Article, perpetrated in the context of an institutionalised regime of
systematic oppression and domination by one racial group over any other racial group or
groups and perpetrated with an aim of maintaining that regime.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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7.4.2. PRINCIPLE OF LEGALITY
In many cases the panels of the Court of BiH (both first instance and second instance) have ruled
that the application of the BiH Criminal Code with regard to crimes against humanity was not in
violation of the principle of legality.
207
Reasoning regarding this issue as provided by the trial and
appeal panel in the et al. case will be provided here as an example.
The trial panel noted that during the conflict between 1992 and 1995, crimes against humanity
were not included in the criminal codes in effect in BiH. However, the panel held, it was
indisputable that in 1992 crimes against humanity were accepted as part of international
customary law and constituted a non-derogative provision of international law.
208
The Court of BiH found that these offences were covered by international customary law which
was in effect at the time of perpetration. The court found that crimes against humanity were
also defined by the then SFRY CC through individual criminal offences under the following
articles:
Article 134 (Inciting National, Racial or Religious Hatred, Discord or Hostility);
Article 142 (War Crime against the Civilian Population);
Article 143 (War Crime against the Wounded and the Sick);
Article 144 (War Crimes against Prisoners of War);
Article 145 (Organizing and Instigating the Commission of Genocide and War Crimes);
Article 146 (Unlawful Killing or Wounding of the Enemy);
Article 147 (Marauding);
Article 154 (Racial and other Discrimination);
Article 155 (Establishing Slavery Relations and Transporting People in Slavery Relation);
and
Article 186 (Infringement of the Equality of Citizens).
209
207
See, e.g., et al., Case No. X-KRZ- 06/275, 1st Instance Verdict, 28 Feb. 2008,
p. 164 et seq (p. 189 et seq BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); see, e.g., et
al., Case No. X-KRZ- 06/275, 2nd Instance Verdict, 6 Nov. 2008, p. 30 et seq (p. 32 et seq BCS); Court of BiH,
et al., Case No. X--06/200, 2nd Instance Verdict, 16 Feb. 2009, ¶ 138 et seq
-KRZ-05/49, 2nd Instance Verdict, 13 Dec. 2006, p. 20 et seq (p. 22 et seq BCS);
Jadranko Palija, Case No. X-KR-06/290, 1st Instance Verdict, 28 Nov. 2007, p. 18 et seq (p. 17 et seq BCS)
et al., Case No. X-KRZ-06/236, 1st Instance Verdict, 6 Nov.
2008, p. 91 et seq (p. 87 et seq Case No. X-KR-
06/234, 1st Instance Verdict, 19 June 2007, p. 12 et seq (p. 11 et seq BCS) (upheld on appeal); Court of BiH,
-KR-05/161, 1st Instance Verdict, 16 Feb. 2007, p. 32 et seq (p. 31 et seq BCS)
(relevant part upheld on appeal-KR-05/161, 2nd Instance
-KR-05/16, 1st Instance Verdict, 26
May 2006, p. 22 et seq (p. 19 et seq BCS) (upheld on appeal); Nikola Kovaev-KR-05/40, 1st
Instance Verdict, 3 Nov. 2006, p. 39 et seq (p. 36 et seq
No. X-KR-05/51, 1st Instance Verdict, 15 Dec. 2006, p. 55 et seq (p. 51 et seq BCS) (relevant part upheld on
appeal).
208
See, e.g., et al., 1st inst., p. 165 (p. 190 - 1 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
209
et al., 1st inst., p. 164 (p. 189 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
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The Court in BiH held that
against humanity.
Thus, although Article 172 of the BiH Criminal Code now includes crimes against humanity, these
offences also existed during the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia because they were prohibited
by international standards and, indirectly, through the SFRY CC in effect at the time.
210
The Court of BiH held that the UN Secretary General,
211
International Law Commission
212
as well
as the case law of the ICTY and ICTR
213
established that the punishability of crimes against
humanity represented an imperative standard of international law or jus cogens.
214
Therefore,
the Court of BiH held, it appears indisputable that in 1992 crimes against humanity were part of
international customary law.
215
With regard to Article 4(a) of the BiH Criminal Code,
Recognized in the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal
International Law Commission submitted to the UN General Assembly in 1950.
216
The Court of BiH held, therefore, that regardless of whether it was viewed from the position of
the customary interna
was indisputable that crimes against humanity constituted a criminal offence in the relevant
time period and that the principle of legality had been satisfied.
217
Further detailed reasoning on this issue could be instructive, and can be found in the et
al. trial panel judgement.
218
210
Ibid.
211
Ibid., referring to the UN Secretary General Report pursuant to paragraph 2 of Security Council
Resolution 808 (1993) ¶¶ 33-34, 47-48, available at
http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/25704.
212
See, e.g., et al., 1st inst., p. 164 (p. 189 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to the
International Law Commission, Commentary on the Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of
Mankind (1996), Art. 18.
213
See, e.g., et al., 1st inst., p. 164 (p. 189-190 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to
Akayesu, TJ ¶¶ 563-577.
214
See, e.g., et al., 1st inst., pp. 164-165 (p. 190 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to
the International Law Commission, Commentary to Draft Arts. on Responsibility of States for
Internationally Wrongful Acts (2001), Art. 26.
215
See, e.g., et al., 1st inst., p. 165 (p. 190 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
216
Ibid.
217
Ibid.
218
Ibid. at pp. 164 et seq. (p. 189 et seq. BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 2nd. inst., p.
31 (p. 33 BCS).
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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MODULE 7
The existence of a widespread or
systematic attack is an alternative, and it
is not necessary to prove that the attack
is both widespread and systematic.
7.4.3. GENERAL CONTEXTUAL ELEMENTS OF CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
The Court of BiH has held that in order for an offence to be characterise
is above all necessary that the general elements be satisfied first, which include
that:
219
The attack must be widespread or systematic;
The attack must be directed against any civilian population;
The acts of the perpetrator must be part of the attack; and
The perpetrator must know that his acts fall within the context of numerous widespread
or systematic crimes directed against civilian population, and that his acts are part of
that pattern.
These elements are discussed in turn, below.
7.4.3.1. EXISTENCE OF A WIDESPREAD OR SYSTEMATIC ATTACK
Article 172(1) of the BiH Criminal Code, inter alia,
requires the existence of a widespread or
systematic attack.
220
The Court of BiH has held
that this requirement presents an alternative, and
that it is not necessary to prove that the attack is
both widespread and systematic.
221
In Momir
and Marko cases, the panels
determined the existence of the attack that
fulfilled both requirements.
222
7.4.3.1.1. ATTACK
Relying on ICTY jurisprudence, the trial panel in the case against Momir has described an
ons including the perpetration of violent acts or the acts of
219
See, e.g., , 1st inst., p. 29 (p. 26-
No. X-KRZ-05/07, 2nd Instance Verdict, 15 Oct. 2008, p. 9 (p. 9 BCS); , 1st inst., p. 15 (p. 13 BCS)
-KRZ-07/382, 2nd Instance Verdict, 23 Jan. 2009, ¶ 103;
Boban im-KRZ-05/04, 2nd Instance Verdict, 7 Aug. 2007, p. 14-15 (p. 13 BCS); Palija, 1st
inst., p. 25 (p. 24-et al., Case No. X--06/200,
1st Instance Verdict, 30 May 2008, p. 192 (p. 180 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); Court of BiH,
-KRZ-06/298, 2nd Instance Verdict, 16 Dec.
Case No. X--06/202, 1st Instance Verdict, 23 May 2008, p. 14 (p. 16 BCS) (relevant part upheld on
appeal); , 1st inst., p. 20 (p. 18-19 BCS) (upheld on appeal); Z. , 1st inst., p. 15 (p. 14 BCS)
(upheld on appeal); G. , 1st inst., p. 35 (p. 34) (relevant part upheld on appeal); D. , 1st
inst., p. 12 (p. 11 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); , 1st inst., pp. 25-26 (p. 24 BCS) (upheld
on appeal); et al., 1st. inst., p. 39 (p. 38 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
220
See, e.g., , 1st inst., p. 30 (p. 27 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
221
Ibid.; , 2nd inst., p. 14 (p. 14 BCS).
222
, 1st inst., p. 30 (p. 27 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); , 2nd inst., p. 14 (p. 14
BCS).
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were not identical. Under customary
could precede, outlast or continue during the
In the context of a crime against
to the conduct of hostilities.
223
The trial panel further noted that Article 172(2)(a) of the BiH Criminal Code defined
Ar
224
The trial panel clarified that the notions of
identical.
225
Under customary international
precede, outlast or continue during the
armed conflict, but it need not be part of
226
Furthermore, t
humanity from the context of war crimes.
227
228
but coul
mistreatment of persons taking no active part in
229
However, both terms reflect the assumption that the
civilian population cannot be a legitimate target during
a war.
230
7.4.3.1.2. OBJECT OF THE ATTACK
the population that is the object of the attack. Then, after
231
Identifying the population subjected to the attack, the trial panel in Momir case
considered, inter alia:
The Panel has found that in early April 1992 an attack against and the
destruction of the area of and the surrounding villages was launched by
the Serb paramilitary formations consisting of local Serbs, police and other
paramilitary formations (that arrived from the Republic of Serbia). During the
223
, 1st inst., p. 30 (p. 27 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 415.
224
, 1st inst., p. 30 (p. 27 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
225
Ibid.
226
Ibid.
227
Ibid.
228
Ibid.
229
Ibid. referring to Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 86.
230
, 1st inst., p. 30 (p. 27 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 416.
231
, 1st inst., p. 31 (p. 28 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) (emphasis added); , 2nd
inst., p. 9 (p. 10 BCS), referring to Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 95.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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The fact that one side committed the
attack against the civilian population
of the other side does not justify the
attack of that other side against the
civilian population of the first side.
frequent, large scale action, carried out
collectively with considerable seriousness and
attack, soldiers, the members of paramilitary formations, were collecting male
and female Bosniaks, and took them away from their homes so that some of
them disappeared without trace (especially men fit for military service).
232
The trial panel held that the defence argument
that the Bosniak civilians also kept sentries and
that they were armed was irrelevant. The panel
considered that as customary international law
absolutely forbids the use of armed force against
civilians, the principle of tu quoque was not a
valid defence.
233
The trial panel relied on this
finding of the ICTY Appeals Chamber in Kunarac:
When determining whether there was an attack against a particular civilian
population, it is irrelevant that the other side also committed atrocities against
the enemy's civilian population. The fact that one side committed the attack
against the civilian population of the other side does not justify the attack of
that other side against the civilian population of the first side, and it does not
exclude the conclusion that the forces of that other side actually directed their
attack precisely against the civilian population as such. Any attack on the
enemy's civilian population is unlawful and the crimes committed within such an
attack can be qualified as crimes against humanity, provided that all other
requirements are met.
234
7.4.3.1.3.
The appellate panel in Marko
held that t
large scale action, carried out collectively
with considerable seriousness and
directed against a multiplicity of
235
232
, 1st inst., pp. 31-32 (p. 28-29 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
233
, 1st inst., p. 38 (p. 34 BCS) referring to et al., 1st. inst., p. 45; also referring to Kunarac et
al., AJ ¶ et al., Case No. IT-95-16-T, Trial Judgement, 14 Jan. 2000, ¶ 517 and
et al., Case No. IT-95-16-T, Decision on Evidence on the Good Character of the accused and the Defense of
-4.
234
, 1st inst., p. 38 (p. 34 BCS) no reference to specific paragraph.
235
, 2nd inst., p. 10 (p. 10 BCS), referring to Akayesu, TJ ¶ 580; see also , 1st inst., p. 30 (p.
28 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
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a regular pattern on the basis of a
common policy involving substantial
7.4.3.1.4.
following a regular pattern on the basis of a common
policy involving substantial public or private
236
The trial panel in Momir held that the following
considerations could indicate whether an attack was
The organised nature of the acts of violence;
The low probability of their random occurrence;
237
and
The p-accidental repetition of similar conduct on a regular
238
7.4.3.1.5.
The trial panel in the Momir noted that there is no requirement that the acts of the
international law.
239
However, the panel noted that Article 172(2)(a) of the BiH Criminal Code required that the
240
241
There existed a State or organizational policy;
The policy was to commit such an attack; and
The attack was launched on the basis of or in furtherance of that policy.
The trial panel relied on Article 7 of the Rome Statute to define these elements, as follows:
242
236
, 2nd inst., p. 10 (p. 10 BCS), referring to Akayesu, TJ ¶ 580.
237
, 1st inst., p. 31 (p. 28 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
238
, 1st inst., p. 31 (p. 28 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 429;
See also , 2nd inst., p. 10 (p. 10 BCS), referring to Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 94.
239
, 1st inst., p. 36 (p. 32 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 98.
240
, 1st inst., p. 36 (p. 32 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
241
Ibid.
242
Ibid., (relevant part upheld on appeal). The panel considered that the Rome Statute, although not
directly applicable in BiH, was relevant for the following reasons: it is accepted by many countries, and as
such, it reflects the standards of customary international law; it uses almost identical meanings as the CC
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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There was no requirement that
the policy be a formal state
policy, but held that the policy
must be preconceived.
It is not necessary that the policy
involve specific criminal
offences, but should be related
general term
243
organis
ability of the organis
the policy of attack against civilians in a
widespread and
organization.
244
sations
245
be interpreted in the manner that it represents the defining of the objectives which
should
246
The
appellate panel in Marko held that there was no requirement that the policy
247
The trial
panel in Momir also held that it is not necessary that the policy involve specific
criminal offence
248
should be considered on a case-by-case basis.
249
does not necessarily imply the existence of a
considerations to find a nexus:
250
o joint acts of members of an organization or
state;
o individual but similar acts of the members of the organization or state;
o preparatory activities before launching the attack;
o activities prepared or steps undertaken during or towards the end of the attack;
o existence of political, economic or other strategic objectives of the state or
organization, which will be realised by the attack; and
o in case of failure to undertake the acts, knowledge about the attack and intentional
failure to undertake the acts.
of BiH; BiH is its signatory and it has ratified it; the CC was adopted (with the wording that closely follows
the Rome Statute) after the Rome Statute.
243
, 1st inst., p. 36 (p. 33 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
244
Ibid., referring to , 1st inst. p. 40 (p. 39 BCS).
245
, 1st inst., p. 36 (p. 33 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
246
Ibid.
247
, 2nd inst., p. 10 (p. 10 BCS), referring to Akayesu, TJ ¶ 580.
248
, 1st inst., p. 36 (p. 33 BCS) referring to et al., 1st. inst., p. 40 (p. 39 BCS).
249
, 1st inst., p. 37 (p. 33 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st. inst., p. 40 (p. 39
BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
250
, 1st inst., p. 37 (p. 33 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
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civilian population was a
part in the hostilities, including
members of armed forces who have
laid down their arms and those placed
hors de combat by sickness, wounds,
The panel found that:
Although every individual attack must be considered widespread and
systematic, the pattern of the attacks against civilians, irrespective of whether it
is individually widespread or systematic, would (under certain circumstances) be
proof of the policy to commit such attacks.
251
7.4.3.2. ATTACK DIRECTED AGAINST ANY CIVILIAN POPULATION
In Momir
252
The trial panel noted that the term
ot mean that the entire population of
the geographical entity in which the attack was taking place
253
In et al., the trial panel added that
attack was directed against enough individuals or in such a way as to demonstrate that the
attack was not against a limited and random number of individuals or consisted of limited and
254
of BiH considered the definition provided in
taking no active part in the hostilities, including
members of armed forces who have laid down
their arms and those placed hors de combat by
sickness, wounds, detention, or any other
cause
255
This article, the Court of BiH further
circumstances be treated humanely, without any
adverse distinction founded on race, colour, religion or faith, sex, birth or wealth, or any other
256
The trial panel in Momir case added in this respect that:
257
251
, 1st inst., p. 37 (p. 33 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st. inst., p. 40 (p. 40
BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
252
, 1st inst., p. 38 (p. 34 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
253
Ibid. referring to Kunarac et al., AJ ¶90.
254
et al., 1st. inst., p. 41 (p. 40 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to et al., AJ ¶
95.
255
, 1st inst., p. 38 (p. 34 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); , 2nd inst., p. 14 (p. 15
BCS); et al., 1st. inst., p. 41 (p. 40 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
256
, 1st inst., p. 38 (p. 34-35 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); , 2nd inst., p. 14 (p. 15
BCS).
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civilian even if certain non-civilians
are present it must simply be
pred
Acts that are geographically
or temporally separate from
still be considered part of the
attack as long as they are
connected to it.
enemy, it may also be directed against any
civilian population, including any part of the
were placed hors de combat when the criminal
258
259
-civilians are present it
260
7.4.3.3. NEXUS
In Momir , the trial panel noted that according to Article 172, to establish a nexus between
the crimes and the attack, both objective and subjective elements should be considered.
The panel held that this was established by the following objective considerations:
261
That the acts of the accused are sufficiently related to the attack.
262
[] need not be widespread or systematic in order to
represent part of the a
263
The trial panel added
of the attack provided that they were sufficiently
264
Acts that are geographically or temporally separate
part of the attack as long as they are connected to
it.
265
The trial
crime committed several months after, or several
kilometres away from the main attack could still, if
sufficiently connected otherwise, be part of that
257
, 1st inst., pp. 38-39 (p. 35 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
258
, -
95-10A, Appeal Judgement, 5 July 2001, ¶ 54.
259
, 1st inst., pp. 38-et
al., Case No. IT-98-34-A, Appeal Judgement, 3 May 2006, ¶ 235.
260
, 1st inst., p. 39 (p. 35 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to et al., TJ ¶ 180.
261
, 1st inst., p. 40 (p. 36 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
262
Ibid.
263
Ibid. referring to et al., AJ ¶ 94.
264
, 1st inst., p. 30 (p. 27 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to Limaj et al., TJ ¶ 189.
265
, 1st inst., p. 40 (p. 36 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to , TJ ¶ 132 and
Kunarac et al., TJ ¶¶ 581-592.
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266
A connection with the attack can be established by considering the manner the acts
the peak of the attack.
267
Regarding the subjective element, the following points are key:
he attack against the civilian population
268
However, as held by the appellate panel in Marko the accused need not
know the details of the attack or approve of the context in which his or her acts
269
the accused merely needs to understand the overall context in which
270
Direct evidence that the accused knew about the relevant context and nexus is not
necessary, the Momir trial panel held.
271
The trial panel held that such proof may be established by supporting evidence such
as:
272
o the status of the accused in civil or military hierarchies;
o the fact that the accused as a member of a group or organization involved in the
perpetration of crimes;
o the scale of violence; and
o his presence on the crime scene.
7.4.4. SPECIFIC UNDERLYING CRIMES
Each of the specific underling crimes that could constitute crimes against humanity under the
BiH Criminal Code are outlined and discussed in turn, below.
7.4.4.1. DEPRIVING ANOTHER PERSON OF HIS LIFE (MURDER) (ARTICLE 172 (1)(A))
Elements of the offence set forth under Article 172(1)(a) of the BiH Criminal Code are:
273
that the person was deprived of his/her life; and
266
, 1st inst., p. 30 (p. 27 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to Kunarac et al., TJ and
, TJ ¶ 132.
267
, 1st inst., p. 40 (p. 36 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to , TJ ¶ 132 and
Kunarac et al., TJ ¶¶ 581-592.
268
, 1st inst., p. 40 (p. 36 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to Kayishema, TJ ¶ 134 and
Bagilishema, TJ, ¶ 94.
269
, 2nd inst., p. 17 (p. 17 BCS) referring to Limaj et al., TJ ¶ 190.
270
, 2nd inst., p. 17 (p. 17 BCS) referring to et al., TJ ¶ 185.
271
, 1st inst., p. 40 (p. 36 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
272
Ibid.
273
et al., 1st inst., p. 197 (p. 184 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); , 1st inst., p. 78-79 (p.
69 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 61 (p. 64 BCS) (relevant part upheld on
appeal), referring to D. , 1st inst., pp. 53-54 (p. 49 BCS).
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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that the deprivation of life was committed with intent.
In et al., the trial panel held that Article 172(a)(1) corresponded with the definition of
the offence under customary international law at the relevant time.
274
275
The trial panel in et al.
concurred with the finding of the ICTY trial chamber in
normalcy, it is inappropriate to apply rules of some national systems that require the
276
The panel held that the death of the victim could be
277
Factors that
can support such an inference include:
278
proof of incidents of mistreatment directed against the victim;
patterns of mistreatment and disappearances of other individuals in similar
circumstances;
a general climate of lawlessness where the alleged acts were committed;
the length of time which has elapsed since the victim disappeared; and
the fact that there has been no contact between the victim and persons the victim
.
The trial panel in Momir based the proof of death on:
279
witness statements;
report on the forensic medical expertise;
minutes on establishing the identity;
certificates on death for ten killed persons; and
DNA analysis.
Although the witnesses did not witness the murder of the ten victims in that case, the trial
panel analysed the following to arrive at the conclusion that the men had been deprived of
their lives by the accused:
the men were taken out of their homes;
the men were taken to a house;
the physical ill-treatment of the men in the house;
274
et al., 1st. inst., p. 61 (p. 64 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to , TJ ¶
381.
275
et al., 1st. inst., p. 61 (p. 64 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
276
Ibid.
277
Ibid., referring to Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 326.
278
et al., 1st. inst., p. 61 (p. 64 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to Krnojelac, TJ ¶
327.
279
, 1st inst., pp. 71-78 (p. 63-68 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
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Regarding the causal link
between the act of the
perpetrator and the death of the
must be a substantial cause of
the behaviour of the soldiers towards the witnesses who asked them not to harm those
men;
shooting was heard after the column of ten men and four soldiers entered the woods;
the fact that these men were seen alive for the last time on that date and time; and
the fact that the bodies of all these ten men were exhumed from graves in the area.
280
Regarding the required mens rea, the trial panel in Momir evaluated the actions of the
accused and his subordinates, concluding:
In line with the previously described actions, the accused expressed his
consciousness and intention to deprive these ten Bosniak men of their lives,
regardless of whether he did it personally or not.
281
In , the trial panel noted that according to
ICTY case law it was sufficient that the perpetrator had
the [] to kill, or inflict serious injury in
required by Article 35(3) of the BiH Criminal Code
282
Regarding the causal link between the act of the
perpetrator and the death of the victim, the trial panel in et al. held that the
283
7.4.4.2. ENSLAVEMENT (ARTICLE 172(1)(C))
The elements of the crime of enslavement pursuant to Article 172(1)(c) of the BiH Criminal Code
are:
284
the exercise of any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership over a
person; and
the intentional exercise of such powers.
280
Ibid. at p. 79; (pp. 69-70 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
281
Ibid. at pp. 79-80, 88; (pp. 70, 78 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
282
et al., 1st inst., p. 197 (p. 184 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal). It should be noted here
that the trial panel in et al. held that Art. 172(1)(a) required direct intent of the perpetrator.
However, this appears to be inconsistent with other findings of the Court of BiH. C.f. et al., 1st.
inst., p. 61 (p. 64 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) (holding that under Dragan , direct
intent was the required mens rea) and D. , 1st inst., pp. 53-54 (p. 49 BCS) (holding that the
facts of that specific case showed that the accused acted with direct intent).
283
et al., 1st. inst., p. 61 (p. 64 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to the holding in
that
, TJ ¶ 424).
284
et al., 1st. inst., p. 76 (p. 82 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
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Forced labour could also
amount to enslavement as a
crime against humanity.
the contemporary forms of
slavery under customary
international law at the time
the crimes were committed.
Count 4 of the indictment in et al. alleged that the
accused participated in a system of
285
The
panel held that while forced labour, standing alone, could
constitute a war crime, and that the ICTY had held that it
constituted the crimes of cruel treatment, inhumane
treatment, persecution and other inhumane acts, forced
labour could also amount to enslavement as a crime against
humanity.
286
Relying on Article 6 of the IMT Charter, Article 6(1)(c) of the Control Council Law No. 10, Article
5(c) of the of the Tokyo Charter, Principle VI(c) of the Nuremberg Principles, the 1926 Slavery
Convention and the 1956 UN Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave
Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, the trial panel in et al. held it was
that Article 172(2)(c) corresponded with the definition under international law at the relevant
time.
287
The trial panel in et al. emphasised that the offence of enslavement as a crime against
humanity addressed contemporary forms of slavery, in addition to the common understanding
chattel slavery i.e. the ownership of persons as property.
288
the contemporary forms of slavery under customary
international law at the time the crimes were committed.
289
The panel referred to the Special Court of Sierra Leone AFRC
case, where the defendants were convicted of enslavement
as a crime against humanity under customary international
law for forcibly abducting civilians and using them as forced
labour.
290
The et al. panel concluded that none of the
285
Ibid.
286
et al., 1st. inst., p. 76 (p. 82 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to , AJ ¶ 597
(cruel treatment); et al., TJ ¶ 262 et seq (crime of unlawful labour under Art. 3 of the ICTY Statute
for violating the provisions of Arts. 49, 50, 51 and 52 of the Third Geneva Convention, as well as inhumane
treatment, cruel treatment and other inhumane acts); Krnojelac, AJ ¶ 199 (persecution); et al., TJ ¶¶
835-837 (persecution); -00-39-T, Trial Judgement, 27 Sept. 2006, ¶ 818
(persecution).
287
et al., 1st. inst., p. 76 (p. 83 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
288
Ibid. at p. 77 (p. 83 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
289
Ibid.
290
et al., 1st. inst., p. 77 (p. 84 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to Alex Tamba
Brima et al. (AFRC Case), Case No. SCSL-04-16-T, Trial Judgement, 20 June 2007.
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civilians were treated as chattel in the classical sense of being bought, sold, bartered or
291
Factors to be considered in determining whether any or all of the powers attaching to the right
of ownership were exercised include:
elements of control and ownership;
movement; and, often, the accruing of some gain to the perpetrator;
the consent or free will of the victim is absent. It is often rendered impossible or
irrelevant by, for example, the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, the fear
of violence, deception or false promises or the abuse of power;
, detention or captivity, psychological oppression or
socio-economic conditions;
exploitation;
the exaction of forced or compulsory labour or service, often without remuneration and
often, though not necessarily, involving physical hardship, sex, prostitution and human
trafficking.
292
The panel also noted a consideration recognised in the jurisprudence of the US Military Tribunal
at Nuremberg:
Slavery may exist even without torture. Slaves may be well fed, well clothed and
comfortably housed, but they are still slaves if without lawful process they are
deprived of their freedom by forceful restraint. We might eliminate all proof of
ill-treatment, overlook the starvation, beatings and other barbarous acts, but
the admitted fact of slavery - compulsory uncompensated labour - would still
remain. There is no such thing as benevolent slavery. Involuntary servitude,
even if tempered by humane treatment, is still slavery.
293
The trial panel in et al. also referred to ICTY jurisprudence which noted that, although
evidence of forced labour did not per se ction of forced or
291
et al., 1st. inst., p. 77 (p. 84 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to Brima, et al.
(AFRC), TJ. The et al. trial panel, however, also recognised that in in Siliadin v France the ECtHR had
recognised a more limited interpretation of slavery as prohibited under Art. 4 of the ECHR. While the
panel in et al. recognised the distinction between slavery and other similar practices as human
rights violations
particularly when applied to humanitarian law as distinct from human rights law, the offense of
enslavement did not distinguish between classic and contemporary forms of slavery et al., 1st.
inst., p. 77 (p. 84 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to the ECtHR, App. No. 73316/01, 26 July
2005.
292
et al., 1st. inst., pp. 77-78 (pp. 84-85 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to Kunarac
et al., TJ ¶ 542.
293
et al., 1st. inst., p. 78 (p. 85 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to the US. v Pohl et
al., Judgement, 3 Nov. 1947, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals under
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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Slavery may exist even without
torture. Slaves may be well fed,
well clothed and comfortably
housed, but they are still slaves
if without lawful process they
are deprived of their freedom by
forceful restraint.
compulsory labour or service is an indication of
enslavement and a factor to be taken into consideration in
294
With regard to the l in et
al. noted that the Elements of Crimes of the Rome Statute
physical force, but may include threat of force or coercion,
such as that caused by fear of violence, duress, detention,
psychological oppression or abuse of power against such
person or persons or another person, or by taking advantage of a coercive environment
295
choice to escape or ameliorate such conditions is not a free choice, but the essence of coercion
and the nega
296
The trial panel in et al.
conditions and forced to labour: these factors alone, in the circumstances, establish
297
The panel also considered, inter alia, that:
298
the detainees could not freely volunteer for or consent to labour;
the detainees were not merely forced to labour, but exploited for their labour, and
treated accordingly;
the improved living conditions enjoyed by those detainees who worked were not a
privilege, but merely included some aspects of humane treatment that all detainees
should have enjoyed as a matter of course;
reason of their detention;
the detainees were not free to return to their homes and communities after filling their
work obligation, but remained imprisoned at all times;
the imprisonment was marked by brutally inhumane living conditions:
o inhumane living conditions provided the means through which to compel the
detainees to labour;
o the forced labour of the detainees was intensely exploitative;
o the detainees were not paid or otherwise remunerated for their labour;
o the detainees performed labour that exclusively benefited others; and
o the detainees only derived tangential, if any, benefits, and those benefits in any case
should have been provided to them without their labour.
299
294
et al., 1st. inst., pp. 77-78 (pp. 84-85 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to
Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 359.
295
et al., 1st. inst., p. 82 (p. 90 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to Elements of
Crimes, Art. 7(1)(d), fn. 12.
296
et al., 1st. inst., p. 82 (p. 90 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
297
Ibid.
298
Ibid. at p. 82 et seq. (p. 90 et seq. BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
299
Ibid.
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the powers at
300
Accordingly, et al. trial panel concluded that the forced labour of the detainees
constituted enslavement as a crime against humanity.
301
7.4.4.3. FORCIBLE TRANSFER OF A POPULATION OR DEPORTATION (ARTICLE 172(1)(D))
Unlawful deportation together with forcible transfer is a form of forced displacement of a
population, the trial panel in Momir held.
302
The elements of this criminal offence are:
303
the forced displacement of the persons concerned by expulsion of other coercive acts;
from the area in which they are lawfully present;
without grounds permitted under international law.
Unlike the ICTY Statute and jurisprudence,
304
the BiH Criminal Code recognised forcible transfer
and deportation together as a distinct crime, encompassing the transfer both within and
outside a national border.
305
Thus, the relevant inquiry under the BiH Criminal Code was only
whether the victim had been displaced by expulsion or by coercive acts, while the location to
which they were displaced was not critical.
306
In Momir , for example, it was sufficient that
the persons were expelled from the area in which they were lawfully present.
307
300
Ibid. at p. 83 (p. 92).
301
et al., 1st inst., p. 76 (p. 83 BCS) and p. 79 et seq (p. 86 et seq BCS) (relevant part upheld on
appeal).
302
, 1st inst., p. 66 (p. 58 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to the ICC Statute, Article
7(2)(d), Bla, TJ ¶ 234 and Staki, TJ ¶ 680; See also et al., 1st inst., p. 87 (p. 95 BCS) (relevant
part upheld on appeal); Nenad , Case No. X-KR/06/165, 1st Instance Verdict, 24 Aug. 2007, p.
62 (p. 57 BCS) (relevant part upheld in appeal); , Case No. X-KR/06/202, 1st Instance Verdict,
23 May 2008, p. 29-30 (p. 34 BCS) (upheld in appeal in the relevant part).
303
, 1st inst., p. 66 (p. 58 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 87 (p. 95
BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
304
See above, section 7.2.2.2.5. , 1st inst., pp. 66-67 (p. 58 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal). The
trial panel pointed out that the ICTY Appeals Chamber in the Krnojelac case concluded that
national
law, are crimes punishable under customary international law, and these acts, if committed with the
Such a conclusion, as held by the panel, is a result of the fact that the ICTY Statute does not contain the
criminal offense of forcible transfer as a separate offence. The ICTY trial and appeals chambers classified
this offence as other inhumane acts with a distinct element that forcible transfer consists of displacement
within national borders. et al., 1st inst., p. 87 (p. 96 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
305
, 1st inst., p. 67 (p. 58 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 87 (p. 96
BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
306
, 1st inst., p. 67 (p. 58 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to et al., 1st inst., p.
87 (p. 96 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
307
, 1st inst., p. 66 (p. 58 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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Unlike the ICTY Statute and
Jurisprudence, the BiH Criminal
Code recognised forcible transfer
and deportation together as a
distinct crime, encompassing the
transfer both within and outside
a national border.
The first element implies that force was used to displace people.
308
This force can include:
309
physical violence;
threat of force or coercion (to the extent that it causes a fear of violence);
duress;
detention;
psychological oppression or abuse of power or by taking advantage of coercive
environment.
The c is
whether the concerned persons had any real choice in
310
In this respect, the Court of BiH referred
displaced if he is not faced with a genuine choice as to
whether to leave or to remain in the area [...] An
apparent consent induced by force or threat should not
311
As noted by the trial panel in Momir
displacement of persons is absolutely prohibited except in specific, limited circumstances, as
312
evacuated shall be transferred back to their homes as soon as hostilities in the area in question
313
Mens rea
314
308
Ibid. at p. 67 (p. 58 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 87 (p. 96 BCS)
(relevant part upheld on appeal).
309
Ibid.
310
, 1st inst., p. 67 (pp. 58-59 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 87-88
(p. 96 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
311
, 1st inst., p. 67 (p. 59 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to the ICTY, et al., TJ, ¶
125; et al., 1st inst., p. 88 (p. 96 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to the ICTY,
et al., TJ, ¶ 125.
312
, 1st inst., p. 67 (p. 59 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
displacement of the civilian population shall not be ordered for reasons related to the conflict unless the
security of the civilians involved or imperative military reasons so demand. Should such displacement have
to be carried out, all possible measures shall be taken in order that the civilian population may be received
under satisfactory conditions of shelter, hygienic, health, safety and nutrition. Art. 17 (2) reads: Civilians
et al.,
1st inst., p. 88 (p. 97 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
313
, 1st inst., p. 67 (p. 59 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 88 (p. 97
BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); Lelek, 1st inst., p. 30 (p. 35 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
314
, 1st inst., p. 67 (p. 59 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to the ICTY,
, TJ, ¶ 601; et al., 1st inst., p. 88 (p. 97 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to the
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The trial panel in Momir considered in that respect, inter alia, that:
All the Prosecution witnesses heard state that on the relevant occasion the
accused told them that they had to leave Drinsko taking only their basic personal
belongings and that there was no more joint life there, that as of that moment
that was a Serb land and that their lives were at stake and that if they stayed in
their homes he could not guarantee security to them [].
315
According to the customary international law, it is necessary to prove the
existence of the intent to permanently displace the population.
316
In this case it
is undisputable that no steps were taken by the accused to ensure the return of
the displaced Bosniaks. His conduct is in accordance with the conduct and
activities of the Serb army and police, the aim of which was that only Serbs
remain in the area of Drinsko (and wider area, the area of
municipality).
317
For a discussion of the ICTY jurisprudence on deportation and forcible transfer, see
section 7.2.2.2.5.1.
7.4.4.4. IMPRISONMENT OR SEVERE DEPRIVATION OF PHYSICAL LIBERTY (ARTICLE
172(1)(E))
The elements of the crime of imprisonment in violation of Article 172(1)(e) of the BiH Criminal
Code are:
318
imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty;
in violation of fundamental rules of international law; and
with direct or indirect intent.
Each of these elements will be discussed in turn, below.
ICTY, , TJ, ¶ 601.; Court of BiH, Nenad Tana-KR/06/165, 1st Instance
Verdict, 24 Aug. 2007, p. 62 (p. 57 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to Art. 35 of the BiH CC,
the ICTY, , TJ, ¶ 601 and et al., TJ ¶ 520; Lelek, 1st inst., p. 31 (p. 36 BCS)
(relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to Art. 35 of the BiH CC, the ICTY, , TJ, ¶ 601
and et al., TJ ¶ 520.
315
, 1st inst., p. 68 (p. 60 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
316
Ibid. at p. 71 (p. 62 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to Art. 35 of the BiH CC and to the
ICTY, , TJ, ¶ 601 and et al., TJ ¶ 520.
317
, 1st inst., p. 71 (p. 62 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
318
et al., 1st inst., p. 66 (p. 70 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 198
(p. 186 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); Lelek, 1st inst., p. 25 (p. 28 BCS) (relevant part upheld on
appeal). The panel in et al. concluded that the legal definition of the offense of imprisonment
under Art. 172(1)(e) corresponded to the legal definition of the offense under customary international law
at the relevant time. et al., 1st inst., p. 66 (p. 70 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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deprivation of liberty of the
individual without due process
of law, as part of a widespread
or systematic attack directed
7.4.4.4.1. IMPRISONMENT OR OTHER SEVERE
DEPRIVATION OF PHYSICAL LIBERTY
The appellate panel in Marko considered that
individual without due process of law, as part of a
widespread or systematic attack directed against a civilian
319
The trial panel in et al. referred to the ICRC, which
has noted that internment was the most severe form of
deprivation of physical liberty.
320
7.4.4.4.2. IN VIOLATION OF FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
The trial panel in et al.
rights law, including:
Articles 42 and 43 of the GC IV;
Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; and
Article 9 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
321
322
Thus, it must be proven that
The appellate panel in Marko relied on the test applied by the ICTY trial chamber in
Krnojelac to establish the crime of imprisonment as a crime against humanity:
An individual is deprived of his or her liberty;
The deprivation of liberty is imposed arbitrarily, that is, no legal basis can be invoked to
justify the deprivation of liberty; and
The act or omission by which the individual is deprived of his or her physical liberty is
performed with the intent to deprive the individual arbitrarily of his or her physical
319
, 2nd inst., p. 19 (p. 20 BCS), referring to et al., TJ ¶ 302.
320
et al., 1st inst., p. 66 (p. 70 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to the ICRC
Commentary to Fourth Geneva Convention, Art. 41.
321
et al., 1st inst., p. 66 (p. 70 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); See also, et al., 1st
inst., pp. 198-199 (pp. 186-187 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
322
et al., 1st inst., p. 66 (p. 70 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 198
(p. 186 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 115, and the et al., 1st
inst., p. 66 (pp. 70-71 BCS).
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liberty is arbitrary, and therefore
unlawful, if no legal basis can be
called upon to justify the initial
deprivation of liberty.
liberty or in the reasonable knowledge that his act or omission is likely to cause
arbitrary deprivation of physical liberty.
323
Arbitrary deprivation is evaluated on a case-by-case basis, but includes imprisonment without
due process of law.
324
The appellate panel in Marko held that imprisonment of
civilians will be unlawful where, inter alia:
Civilians have been detained in contravention of Article 42 of GC IV, i.e., they are
detained without reasonable grounds to believe that the security of the detaining power
makes it absolutely necessary;
The procedural safeguards required by Article 43 of GC IV are not complied with in
respect of detained civilians, even where initial
detention may have been justified.
325
Moreover, the trial panel in . noted that the
ICTY trial chamber in Krnojelac
therefore unlawful, if no legal basis can be called upon to
326
To prove that a detention was arbitrary, circumstantial
evidence can be relied on, including:
Evidence that persons deprived of their liberty were not informed of the reasons for
their detention; or
Evidence that the justification for detention was not considered in court or
administrative proceedings.
327
7.4.4.4.3. DIRECT OR INDIRECT INTENT
The mens rea
liberty or in the reasonable knowledge that the act is likely to cause arbitrary deprivation of
328
The intent to deprive a victim of liberty includes not only the actual arrest of
323
, 2nd inst., p. 19 (pp. 19-20 BCS), referring to Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 115.
324
et al., 1st inst., p. 66 (p. 70 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); See also Court of BiH,
, 2nd inst., p. 20 (p. 20 BCS), referring to the ILC 1996 Report, p. 101.
325
, 2nd inst., p. 19 (p. 20 BCS), referring to Koret al., TJ ¶ 303.
326
et al., 1st inst., p. 66 (p. 70 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to Krnojelac, TJ ¶
114; See also , 2nd inst., p. 19 (pp. 19-20 BCS).
327
et al., 1st inst., p. 66 (p. 71 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
328
Ibid. at p. 66 (p. 70 BCS), referring to Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 115; et al., 1st inst., p. 198 (p. 186 BCS)
(relevant part upheld on appeal).
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intent to deprive the victim arbitrarily of
physical liberty or in the reasonable
knowledge that the act is likely to cause
the person but also the on-going
detention.
329
With regards to intent, the
appellate panel in Marko
considered that:
inmates in detention has to be
differentiated from any motive that
330
detainees which were arrested and brought to the camp by others, does not have any
331
In Marko , the accused was found guilty of the severe deprivation of physical liberty
of an individual or a group as a crime against humanity.
332
The accused denied he had been
aware of the fact that the persons would be imprisoned.
333
However, the appellate panel
held:
334
Regarding his intent, the Accused, primarily as an active military officer, had the
knowledge that the civilians were deprived of liberty arbitrarily and unlawfully
(that is, without any legal procedure) and that the deprivation of physical liberty
was not an incident outside the time and geographical context of the attack, as
well as that it was not justified on the grounds of military, combat or other
[The Accused was] aware of the fact that [the victims] were imprisoned although
not charged with any criminal offense, that they were imprisoned because they
were Muslims, Bosniaks, and that in the school in Biljani, given the context of
the overall events, there would be no prescribed procedure based on the law
against them. However, by the surrender of the aforementioned persons, the
Accused also became a co-perpetrator in their imprisonment. He was aware that
the civilians who had been brought there, the majority or all of them, would
remain imprisoned, which shows that the Accused acted with the direct intent,
that he was aware of his action and wanted its commission.
Regarding mens rea in et al., the trial panel concluded:
The evidence establishes beyond doubt that the non-Serb detainees at the KP
Dom were imprisoned arbitrarily and without legal justification. The evidence
329
et al., 1st inst., p. 200 (p. 187 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
330
Ibid.
331
Ibid.
332
, 2nd inst., p. 22 (p. 23 BCS).
333
Ibid. at p. 23 (p. 24 BCS).
334
Ibid.
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establishes, in fact, that the detainees were imprisoned simply on the basis of
their ethnicity, without individualised suspicion and without regard to law.
335
Accordingly, the Panel concludes that the detainees were intentionally deprived
of their liberty arbitrarily and without legal justification, and that the
maintenance of this intentional and arbitrary deprivation of liberty at the KP
Dom constituted the crime of imprisonment as a crime against humanity.
336
7.4.4.5. TORTURE (ARTICLE 172(1)(F))
The elements of the crime of torture under Article 172(2)(f) are:
337
the intentional infliction;
of severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental; and
upon a person in custody or under control of the accused.
338
The Court of BiH noted that these elements differed from the elements of torture existing in
customary international law, as defined in the jurisprudence of the ICTY and ICTR, at the time
the crimes alleged in this proceeding were committed.
339
Specifically, the Court of BiH held that
customary international law required as an additional element that the incriminating act:
340
[M]ust aim at obtaining information or a confession, or at punishing,
intimidating or coercing the victim or a third person, or discriminating, on any
ground, against the victim or a third person.
These elements will be discussed below, starting with the objective elements and then moving to
the intent element.
335
et al., 1st inst., p. 67 (p. 72 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
336
Ibid. at p. 69 (p. 74 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
337
Ibid. at p. 47 (p. 48 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 200 (p. 188 BCS)
(relevant part upheld on appeal); Lelek, 1st inst., p. 26 (p. 30 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
338
-
perpetrators or other persons for whose actions the accused is found to be criminally liable.
339
et al., 1st inst., p. 47 (p. 48 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 200
(p. 188 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), noting that the ICTY thereby accepted the United Nations
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (Torture
Convention) of 1984, 1465 U.N.T.S. 85, which entered into force on 26 June 1987, as presenting the
standard of customary international law at the time the crimes in former Yugoslavia were perpetrated.
340
et al., 1st inst., p. 47 (p. 48 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to Kunarac et al., AJ
¶ 142; et al., 1st inst., p. 200 (p. 188 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); Lelek, 1st inst., p. 28
(p. 32 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
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of the pain or suffering should be
considered both objectively and
subjectively in light of all the
circumstances of the act
7.4.4.5.1. SEVERE PAIN AND SUFFERING, WHETHER PHYSICAL OR MENTAL
The trial panel in et al.
341
The
suffered required for crimes of inhuman treatment, cruel
treatment and other inhumane acts.
342
The panel did not
consider that a precise threshold between the two
the label of torture was reserved for a more limited,
343
344
The Court of BiH panels have relied on ICTY jurisprudence in identifying the following list of
objective considerations to determine whether the pain and suffering was severe:
the nature and context of the infliction of pain;
the premeditation and institutionalization of the ill-treatment;
the manner and method used;
the position of inferiority of the victim;
345
the physical or mental effect of the treatment upon the particular victim; and
346
Where mistreatment has been perpetrated over a prolonged period or involved repeated and
various forms of mistreatment, severity should be assessed taking into consideration the acts as
a whole, to the extent that the lasting period or the repetition of acts:
are inter-related;
follow a pattern; or
are directed towards the same prohibited goal.
347
341
et al., 1st inst., p. 49 (p. 50 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 201
(p. 188 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
342
et al., 1st inst., p. 49 (p. 50 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
343
Ibid.
344
Ibid.
345
Ibid., referring to Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 132 (citing a number of European Court decisions, in particular Soering
v. United Kingdom, Judgement, 7 July 1989, Series A No. 161, ¶¶ 106, 111, on the effect of time on the
severity of the treatment); See also et al., 1st inst., p. 201 (p. 188 BCS) (relevant part upheld on
appeal).
346
et al., 1st inst., p. 49 (p. 50 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to et al., TJ ¶
143.
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Permanent injury is not required for an act to cause sufficient pain or suffering to rise to the
level of torture.
348
The panel in et al. held that the ECtHR has concluded that a variety of different forms of
mistreatment rise to the level of torture, including:
threats to remove bodily limbs (constituting psychological torture);
349
suspension from the arms, which are
350
being repeatedly punched, kicked, and hit with objects;
being invited to perform oral sex on a male police officer before being urinated upon;
being threatened with a blowlamp and then with a syringe;
351
352
and
electric shocks, hot and cold water treatment, blows to the head and psychological
pressure.
353
7.4.4.5.2. PROHIBITED PURPOSE
definition of torture in Article
172(2)(f).
354
However, the trial panel in et al. noted that the ICTY and the ICTR had
relied on international human rights conventions to determine the legal elements of torture
under customary international law.
355
In particular, the ICTY and ICTR trial chambers concluded
that Article 1 of the Torture Convention reflected customary international law.
356
347
et al., 1st inst., p. 49 (p. 50 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to Krnojelac, TJ ¶
132 (citing a number of European Court decisions, in particular Soering, Decision of 7 July 1989, Series A
No. 161, ¶¶ 106, 111, on the effect of time on the severity of the treatment); see also et al., 1st
inst., p. 201 (p. 188 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
348
et al., 1st inst., p. 49 (p. 50 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to , TJ ¶ 484.
349
et al., 1st inst., p. 49 (p. 50 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), refe
Assembly, Thirty-Eighth Session, Supplement No. 40, A.38/40, annex XII, ¶ 8.3).
350
Aksoy v. Turkey (App. 21987/93), Judgement of 18 Dec. 1996.
351
Selmouni v. France (App. 25803/94), Judgement of 28 July 1999.
352
Salman v. Turkey (App. 21986/93), Judgement of 27 June 2000.
353
Akkoç v. Turkey (Apps. 22947/93 and 22948/93), Judgement of 10 Oct. 2000.
354
et al., 1st inst., p. 47 (p. 48 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
355
et al., 1st inst., p. 47 (p. 48 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
356
et al., 1st inst., pp. 47-8 (p. 48 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to 1984 United
Nations Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
, entry into force 26 June 1987; 1975 United Nations Declaration
on the Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment ("Torture Declaration"), adopted by General Assembly resolution 3452, 9 Dec.
1975; 1987 Inter-Ame-American Torture
, Trial Judgement, ¶ 160, , Appeal Judgement, ¶
111, Kunarac et al., TJ ¶483 and Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 146.
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The panel also noted that the
be the sole or predominate
purpose, but need only be
part of the motivation beyond
The panel in et al. likewise concluded that the
Torture Convention reflected customary international law
regarding torture as a crime against humanity at the relevant
time.
357
element, the panel also considered the ICRC Commentary on
Article 147 of the GC IV to be persuasive authority on the
importance of this element.
358
The panel noted that the ICRC
commentary focused on the purposes, rather than the
severity, behind the act of torture and emphasised that what
359
purpose, but need only be part of
360
7.4.4.5.3. INTENT TO INFLICT THE PAIN AND SUFFERING
Holding that the acts against constituted the crime of torture pursuant to Article
172(1)(f), the panel in et al. relied on circumstantial evidence to find the required intent,
holding, inter alia:
361
That these beatings were intended to cause severe physical pain is evident
from the physical injuries described by the witnesses and the fact that was
subjected to such harsh physical abuse on multiple occasions. According to the
procedure in place, was taken to and returned from interrogations by KP
Dom guards. was in the custody and control of KP Dom authorities and
guards at the KP Dom facility. As the witnesses testified, each time he was taken
out, it was in order to interrogate him for additional information. Each time he
returned from interrogation he showed signs of physical assault. The beatings
were committed during the course of a pattern of interrogations and were
committed with the prohibited purpose of obtaining information or a confession
from him.
7.4.4.6. RAPE / SEXUAL VIOLENCE (ARTICLE 172(1)(G))
The elements of rape and sexual violence as a crime against humanity under Article 172(1)(g)
are:
362
357
et al., 1st inst., p. 48 (p. 49 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
358
Ibid. p. 48 (p. 49 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
359
Ibid.
360
Ibid., referring to , TJ ¶ 487.
361
et al., 1st inst., p. 54 (pp. 56-57 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
362
et al., 1st inst., p. 203 (pp. 190-191 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); , 1st inst.,
pp. 26-27 (p. 24 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); Lelek, 1st inst., p. 36 (p. 40 BCS) (relevant part
upheld on appeal).
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d
considerably from rape as a general crime, which requires corroborating evidence or direct
examination of the victim. The panel reasoned that in cases of rape as a crime against
objective reasons, as many were killed, are unaccounted for or a
Coercion by force or by threat of immediate attack
To sexual intercourse or an equivalent sexual act.
The trial panel in
intention to effect the sexual penetration, and the knowledge that it occurs without the consent
363
physical invasion of a sexual nature, committed on a person under circumstances which are
364
The appellate panel in stressed that rape as a crime against humanity differed
considerably from rape as a general crime, which requires corroborating evidence or direct
examination of the victim. The panel reasoned that in cases of rape as a crime against
due to objective
365
The trial panel in found the accused guilty of rape and sexual violence.
366
The panel
held that:
The severity of the acts of sexual violence is established by the specific
circumstances of coercion and helplessness experienced by the victims in the
camp situation as well as by the level of harassment they had to endure.
Also the subjective requirement for these offences has been met. The Court
is convinced beyond reasonable doubt that each of the perpetrators intended
the action he took aware of its coercive character.
367
363
et al., 1st inst., p. 203 (p. 191 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to Kunarac et al.,
AJ ¶¶ 127-129.
364
et al., 1st inst., p. 203 (p. 191 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to et al.,
TJ ¶¶ 175, 180, citing Akayesu, TJ ¶ 688.
365
, 2nd inst., p. 18 (pp. 19-20 BCS).
366
et al., 1st inst., pp. 203-204 (p. 191 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
367
Ibid.
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Cumulative convictions were
permitted for rape and
torture. For rape, the distinct
element is sexual penetration
and for torture, it is the
prohibited purpose.
In the Lelek case, the Court of BiH held that raping also constitutes torture because the
rape necessarily gives rise to sever pain and suffering.
368
Rape as torture was also an issue in the Gojko
case. In that case, the Court of BiH held that cumulative
convictions based on the same conduct were permitted,
providing that each of the crimes contained a distinct
element requiring proof of a fact not required by the
other.
369
The court noted that this was applicable for rape
and torture: for rape, the distinct element is sexual
penetration and for torture, it is the prohibited purpose
(such as obtaining information or a confession, punishing,
intimidating or coercing a victim or a third person, or
discrimination on any ground).
370
In this case, the court found that in addition to the legal
requirements for rape having been met, the legal requirements for torture were also met, as
the gang-rape of the injured party caused her severe pain and suffering, was intentional and
prohibited purposes were present.
371
The court noted that the rape was discriminatory, as it
gang-rape if she did not tell the truth.
372
In the Predrag case, the accused was found guilty for sexual slavery as a crime against
humanity under Article 172(1)(g) of the BiH Criminal Code.
373
The trial panel noted that under
Article 7 of the Rome Statute, the elements qualifying sexual slavery have been established as
follows:
374
The perpetrator exercised any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership
over one or more persons, such as by purchasing, selling, lending or bartering such a
person, or by imposing on them a similar deprivation of liberty;
The perpetrator caused such person or persons to engage in one or more acts of a
sexual nature;
The conduct was committed as part of widespread or systematic attack directed against
civilian population; and
The perpetrator knew that the conduct was part of or intended the conduct to be part
of a widespread or systematic attack directed against civilian population.
368
Lelek, 1st inst., p. 36 (p. 42 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal, pars 70-71), referring to Kunarac et
al., TJ ¶¶ 149-150. See also Module 12 for more information on cumulative charging.
369
G. , 1st inst., p. 53 (p. 51 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal, p. 15 (p. 14 BCS), referring to
Kunarac et al., AJ ¶ 142.
370
Ibid.
371
Ibid.
372
Ibid.
373
, 1st inst., (relevant part upheld on appeal).
374
Ibid. at ¶ 512 (relevant part upheld on appeal).
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The elements constituting the crime of
sexual slavery were:
Intentional exercise of any or all of the
powers attaching to the right of
ownership over a person; and
The perpetrator subjected a victim to
sexual intercourse on one or more
occasions.
The trial panel also noted that sexual slavery
was also punishable under Article 2 of the
Statute of the Special Court of Sierra
Leone.
375
Moreover, the trial panel reiterated
the finding of the Court of BiH appellate
panel in Gojko case that the
elements constituting the crime of sexual
slavery were:
376
Intentional exercise of any or all of
the powers attaching to the right of
ownership over a person; and
The perpetrator subjected a victim to sexual intercourse on one or more occasions.
The trial panel in this case gave credence to the testimony of the aggrieved party and her
parent, and found that the conditions in which the victim found herself (force, threat and
continuous physical and mental abuse) did not provide her with any possibility of offering
resistance and that she was de facto deprived of her sexual independence over which the
accused had a complete control.
377
The trial panel also found that a special relevance to the
actions of the accused against the aggrieved party was given to his discriminatory attitude.
378
The panel concluded that:
[t]he aggrieved party did the described actions against her own will, bearing in
mind that she was not in a situation to give any true consent, and that she was
subjected to conditions constituting sexual slavery. The above described
conditions clearly constitute the intentional exercise of one authority or of all
authorities of the Accused in connection with the right to ownership over the
person 2.
379
The panel found the accused guilty as co-perpetrator (under Article 29 of the BiH Criminal Code)
and an inciter (under Article 30 of the BiH Criminal Code) in keeping the aggrieved party in
sexual slavery during a widespread and systematic attack on non-Serb civilians in the
Municipality of Doboj and knowing of such attack.
380
375
Ibid. at ¶ 513 (relevant part upheld on appeal).
376
Ibid. at ¶ 514 (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to G. , 2nd inst.
377
, 1st inst., ¶¶ 544, 546, 515-546 (relevant part upheld on appeal).
378
Ibid. at ¶ 550 (relevant part upheld on appeal).
379
Ibid. at ¶ 556 (relevant part upheld on appeal).
380
Ibid. at ¶¶ 551 and 557 (relevant part upheld on appeal).
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Persecution as a crime against humanity is
an act or omission which:
Discriminates in fact and which denies
or infringes upon a fundamental right
laid down in international customary or
treaty law; and
Was carried out deliberately with the
intention to discriminate on one of the
listed grounds, specifically race, religion
or politics.
7.4.4.7. PERSECUTION (ARTICLE 172(1)(H))
Pursuant to Article 172(1)(h) of the BiH Criminal Code, the elements of the crime of persecution
as a crime against humanity are:
381
the intentional and severe deprivation of fundamental rights;
contrary to international law;
by reason of the identity of a group or collectivity;
against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural,
religious or sexual gender or other grounds that are universally recognised as
impermissible under international law; and
in connection with any offence listed in this paragraph of this Code, any offence listed in
this Code or any offence falling under the competence of the Court of Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
In , the trial panel held that
the underlying criminal act, the perpetrator must also intend to commit this act against a group
or a collectivity of victims based on
discriminatory criteria.
382
The trial panel in et al. noted that the
definition of persecution under customary
international law was reflected by the ICTY
appeals chamber when it held that persecution
as a crime against humanity was an act or
omission which:
383
Discriminates in fact and which denies
or infringes upon a fundamental right
laid down in international customary or
treaty law; and
Was carried out deliberately with the intention to discriminate on one of the
listed grounds, specifically race, religion or politics.
384
The panel further concluded that Article 172(1)(h) and (2)(g) of the BiH Criminal Code
incorporate this definition.
385
381
, 2nd inst., ¶ 173; et al., 1st inst., p. 100 (p. 111 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal);
et al., 1st inst., p. 205 (pp. 192-193 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); Lelek, 1st inst., p. 46
(pp. 52-53 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); Kovaevi, 1st inst., p. 43 (pp. 39-40 BCS) (upheld on
appeal); , 1st inst., p. 26 (p. 23 BCS) (upheld on appeal).
382
et al., 1st inst., p. 205 (p. 193 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
383
et al., 1st inst., p. 100 (p. 111 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to et al.,
AJ ¶ 320.
384
Ibid.
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The cumulative effect of acts of
persecution must be considered, and
then the acts should be viewed in their
context, not in isolation.
The panel in et al. held that:
The discriminatory grounds established by the ICTY, namely racial, religious and political,
are the exclusive grounds recognised by customary international law at the relevant
time and are thus the exclusive grounds that the panel can consider in these
proceedings.
international law, as it is included in Article 172(1)(h), the panel is bound to apply that
element.
386
The commission of multiple persecutory acts should be considered as the commission of
a single criminal offence, namely persecution, even if individually those acts amount to
other crimes against humanity.
387
Similarly, relying on ICTY jurisprudence, the trial
panel in held that the cumulative effect of
acts of persecution must be considered, and the
acts should be viewed in their context, not in
isolation.
388
The panel also noted that the act or
various forms, and there is no comprehensive list of
what acts can amount to persecution; the persecutory act or omission may encompass physical
389
In , the trial panel held that the underlying acts of murder, imprisonment, torture, rape
committed with the requisite specific discriminatory intent.
390
However, the panel did not
ose crimes were to be
grouped if committed with the requisite specific discriminatory intent.
391
7.4.4.8. ENFORCED DISAPPEARANCE OF PERSONS (ARTICLE 172(1)(I))
The elements of the crime of enforced disappearance pursuant to Article 172(1)(i) of the BiH
Criminal Code are:
392
385
et al., 1st inst., p. 100 (p. 111 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
386
Ibid.
387
Ibid. at p. 100 (p. 112 BCS); See also et al., 1st inst., p. 94 (p. 90 BCS) (upheld on appeal); Lelek, 1st
inst., p. 46 (p. 53 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to et al., 1st inst., p. 100 (p. 112
BCS), , 1st inst.; , 1st inst.; , 1st inst.; Kovae, 1st inst., pp. 43-44 (p. 40
BCS) (upheld on appeal); , 1st inst., p. 26 (p. 23 BCS) (upheld on appeal).
388
et al., 1st inst., p. 56 (p. 54 BCS) (upheld on appeal), referring to et al., TJ ¶ 622.
389
et al., 1st inst., p. 56 (p. 54 BCS) (upheld on appeal), referring to , TJ ¶ 246.
390
et al., 1st inst., p. 205 (p. 193 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
391
Ibid.
392
et al., 1st inst., pp. 88, 98 (pp. 97, 109-110 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); D.
, 1st inst., pp. 26-27 (p. 25 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
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acknowledge the deprivation of
freedom or provide inform
the arrest, detention or abduction of persons;
by or with the authorization, support or acquiescence of a State or a political
organization;
followed by a refusal to acknowledge that deprivation of freedom or to give information
on the fate or whereabouts of those persons; and
with the aim of removing those persons from the protection of the law for a prolonged
period of time.
The panel in Ra et al. held that the offence of enforced disappearance represented a
393
The panel, however,
went through a lengthy analysis of the status of customary law to conclude that enforced
disappearance constituted a crime under customary international law at the time the offence
occurred.
394
The panel in et al. held that the first element of the offence
secured detention, transfers, transportations and [removal] of persons from initial detention or
395
According to the et al. trial panel, a
396
or
fate constitutes refusal or failure to give information
397
With regard to the facts of the case, the trial panel in et al. concluded:
398
[t]he Panel concludes that the elements of the offense of enforced
disappearance were established beyond doubt. At least 200 non-Serb detainees
were taken out of the KP Dom under guard to another, unknown location. These
acts were authorized by the Tactical Group, an organ of the Republika
Srpska. Both the remaining detainees at the KP Dom, at the time and after their
own exchanges, and the Federation Commission for Missing Persons thereafter
sought and did not receive information from the KP Dom staff and the organs of
the Republika Srpska regarding the whereabouts and fates of these detainees.
The takings away were conducted repeatedly and systematically over a number
of months and involved large numbers of detainees. In addition, there were
clear attempts to hide and disguise the fates of the detainees taken away,
393
et al., 1st inst., p. 88 (p. 97 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
394
Ibid. at pp. 88-90 (pp. 97-99 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
395
Ibid. at p. 98 (p. 110 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
396
Ibid.
397
Ibid.
398
Ibid. at p. 98-99 (p. 110 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
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The injury or suffering must be real and
serious, but it is not necessary that it be
long-lasting. However, the long-term
effects of the act are relevant to
determining its seriousness.
evidencing the intent from the outset to remove any possibility that these
organizations authorized under domestic and international law. Detainees at the
KP Dom were repeatedly told that these detainees were being taken to be
exchanged, while Exhibit O-I-
engaged in laying a false trail by describing in official documents these detainees
as having been taken to be released. These detainees were and continue to be
deprived of the protection of the laws for a period in excess of ten years.
7.4.4.9. OTHER INHUMANE ACTS (ARTICLE 172(1)(K))
The Court of BiH has held that the spec
172(1)(k), were:
399
An act or omission, whose gravity is similar to the gravity of other acts referred to in
Article 172(1) of the BiH Criminal Code;
Which caused serious mental or physical suffering or injury, that is, that they
constitute a serious attack on human dignity; and
Which was intentionally committed by the accused or a person for whose acts and
omissions the accused is criminally responsible.
The Court of BiH held that to assess the seriousness of an act, consideration must be given to all
factual circumstances.
400
Some of these circumstances may include:
401
the nature of the act or omission;
the context in which it occurred;
the personal circumstances of the victim including age, sex and health; and
the physical, mental and moral effects
of the act upon the victim.
The injury or suffering must be real and serious,
but it is not necessary that it be long-lasting.
However, the long-term effects of the act are
relevant to determining its seriousness.
402
The trial panel in Momir case presented
399
, 1st inst., p. 53 (p. 47 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 50 (p. 51
BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 204 (pp. 191-192 BCS) (relevant part
upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 53 (p. 51 BCS) (upheld on appeal).
400
, 1st inst., p. 53 (p. 47 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 50 (p. 52
BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
401
, 1st inst., p. 53 (p. 47 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 50 (p. 52
BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to , TJ, ¶ 627.
402
, 1st inst., p. 54 (p. 48 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 50 (p. 52
BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal), referring to Kunarac et al., TJ ¶ 501 and Krnojelac, TJ ¶ 144.
CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
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examples of inhumane acts from ICTY case law:
403
mutilation or severe bodily harm;
404
beatings and other acts of violence;
405
injuring;
406
serious injuries to physical or mental integrity;
407
serious attack on human dignity;
408
forced labour that caused serious mental or physical suffering or injury or the act
constituted severe attack on human dignity;
409
deportation and forcible transfer of groups of civilians;
410
enforced prostitution;
411
and
enforced disappearance of persons.
412
The mens rea of inhuman acts requires that at the time of the act or omission, the perpetrator
had the intention to inflict serious physical or mental suffering or to commit a serious attack on
the human dignity of the victim, or where he knew that his act or omission was likely to cause
serious physical or mental suffering or a serious attack upon human dignity and was reckless
thereto.
413
403
, 1st inst., p. 53 (p. 47 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal).
404
Ibid. referring to et al., TJ ¶ 208.
405
Ibid.
406
, 1st inst., p. 53 (p. 47 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to et al., AJ ¶ 117.
407
, 1st inst., p. 53 (p. 47 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to , TJ ¶ 239 and
, TJ ¶ 523.
408
, 1st inst., p. 53 (p. 47 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to , TJ ¶¶ 239-240.
409
, 1st inst., p. 53 (p. 47 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to et al., TJ ¶¶ 271,
289, 303.
410
, 1st inst., p. 53 (p. 47 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal) referring to et al., TJ ¶ 566.
411
Ibid.
412
Ibid.
413
, 1st inst., pp. 53-54 (pp. 47-48 BCS) (relevant part upheld on appeal); et al., 1st inst., p. 53
(p. 51 BCS) (upheld on appeal).
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7.5. CROATIA
When trying cases arising from crimes committed during the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia,
the courts in Croatia do not apply the current 1998 Criminal Code. Rather, they apply the OKZ
RH, which, reflecting the SFRY Criminal Code, did not specifically provide for crimes against
humanity to be prosecuted.
414
Therefore, no cases involving charges of crimes against humanity
have been prosecuted to date.
The 1198 Criminal Code does criminalise crimes against humanity. According to Article 157a of
the 1998 Criminal Code
415
:
Whoever violates the rules of international law within an extensive or
systematic attack against the civilian population and, with knowledge of such an
attack, orders the killing of another person, orders the infliction of conditions of
life so as to bring about the physical destruction in whole or in part of some
civilian population which could lead to its complete extermination, orders
trafficking in human beings, in particular of women and children, or the
enslavement of a person in any other way so that some or all of the powers
originating in property rights are exercised over such person, orders the forceful
displacement of persons from areas where they lawfully reside and through
expulsion or other measures of coercion, orders that a person deprived of
liberty or under supervision be tortured by intentionally inflicting severe bodily
or mental harm or suffering, orders that a person be raped or subjected to some
other violent sexual act or that a woman who has been impregnated as a result
of such violent act be intentionally kept in detention so as to change the ethnic
composition of some population, orders the persecution of a person by
depriving him or her of the fundamental rights because this person belongs to a
particular group or community, orders the arrest, detention or kidnapping of
some persons in the name of and with the permission, support or approval of a
state or political organization and subsequently does not admit that these
414
For more on the temporal applicability of laws see Module 5.
415
51/01, 111/03, 190/03, 105/04, 71/06, 110/07, 152/08.
Notes for trainers:
This section deals with the laws applicable in Croatia. As the courts in Croatia apply
the OKZ RH for crimes arising from the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, which does
not include crimes against humanity, these crimes have not been prosecuted in
Croatia to date.
Participants should nevertheless be encouraged to discuss if there are ways in which
such crimes could be prosecuted in Croatia in the future.
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persons have been deprived of their liberty or withholds information about the
fate of such persons or the place where they are kept, or orders within an
institutionalised regime of systematic oppression and domination of one racial
group over another racial group or groups that an inhumane act described in
this Article be committed or an act similar to any of these offenses so as to
maintain such a regime (the crime of apartheid), or whoever commits any of the
foregoing offenses shall be punished by imprisonment for not less than five
years or by a life sentence.
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7.6. SERBIA
When trying cases arising from crimes committed during the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia,
the Serbian courts do not apply the current 2006 Criminal Code. Rather, they apply either the
SFRY Criminal Code or the FRY Criminal Code (reflecting the SFRY Criminal Code) both of which
did not specifically provide for crimes against humanity to be prosecuted. Therefore, no cases
involving charges of crimes against humanity have been prosecuted to date.
The 2006 Criminal Code does criminalise crimes against humanity. According to Article 371 of
the 2006 Criminal Code
416
:
Whoever in violation of the rules of international law, as part of a wider or
systematic attack against civilian population orders: murder; inflicts on the
group conditions of life calculated to bring about its complete or partial
extermination, enslavement, deportation, torture, rape; forcing to prostitution;
forcing pregnancy or sterilisation aimed at changing the ethnic balance of the
population; persecution on political, racial, national, ethical, sexual or other
grounds, detention or abduction of persons without disclosing information on
such acts in order to deny such person legal protection; oppression of a racial
group or establishing domination or one group over another; or other similar
inhumane acts that intentionally cause serious suffering or serious endangering
of health, or whoever commits any of the above-mentioned offences, shall be
punished by imprisonment of minimum five years or imprisonment of thirty to
forty years.
416
Republic of Serbia, Official Gazette, No. 85/2005, 88/2005, 107/2005, 72/2009, 111/2009.
Notes for trainers:
This section deals with the laws applicable in Serbia. As the courts in Serbia apply the
SFRY CC for crimes arising from the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, which does not
include crimes against humanity, these crimes have not been prosecuted in Serbia to
date.
Participants should nevertheless be encouraged to discuss if there are ways in which
such crimes could be prosecuted in Serbia in the future.
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7.7. FURTHER READING
7.7.1. BOOKS
Bassiouni, M. C., CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY: HISTORICAL EVOLUTION AND CONTEMPORARY
APPLICATION (Cambridge University Press, 2011).
Bassiouni, M.C., CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY IN INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW (2nd rev. ed.)
(Kluwer Law International, 1999).
Boot, M., GENOCIDE, CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY, WAR CRIME: NULLUM CRIMEN SINE LEGE AND
THE SUBJECT MATTER JURISDICTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (Intersentia, 2002).
Lattimer, M. and Sands, P., JUSTICE FOR CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY (Hart Publishing, 2003).
Shelton, D. (ed.), THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF GENOCIDE AND CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY Vols. I III.
(Farmington Mills, 2005).
7.7.2. ARTICLES
Franch, V., Crimes Against Humanity in Contemporary International Law in
Constantinides, A., and Zaikos, N., THE DIVERSITY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW: ESSAYS IN HONOUR OF
PROFESSOR KALLIOPI K. KOUFA (Martinus Nijhoff, 2009).
Guzman, M., Crimes Against Humanity in RESEARCH HANDBOOK ON INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL
LAW (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2011).
Roberts, K., Striving for definition: the law of persecution from its origins to the ICTY in
THE DYNAMICS OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL JUSTICE: ESSAYS IN HONOUR OF SIR RICHARD MAY, Boas,
G. and Abtahi, H. eds. (Martinus Nijhoff, 2006).
Robinson, D., et al., Elements of Crimes Against Humanity in THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL:
ELEMENTS OF CRIMES AND RULES OF PROCEDURE AND EVIDENCE, Roy Lee et al. eds. (Transnational
Publishers, 2001).
Schwelb, E., Crimes Against Humanity in THE BRITISH YEAR BOOK OF INTERNATIONAL LAW,
Lauterpacht, H., ed. (London, Oxford University Press, 1946). The United Nations War
Crimes Commission, History of the United Nations War Crimes Commission and the
Development of the Laws of War, (His Majesty's Stationary Office, London, 1949).
7.7.3. REPORTS
Amnesty International, RAPE AND SEXUAL VIOLENCE: HUMAN RIGHTS LAW AND STANDARDS IN THE
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (2011). Available at:
http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/IOR53/001/2011/en.
Human Rights Watch, Genocide, WAR CRIMES, CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY: A DIGEST OF THE
CASE LAW OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR RWANDA (Human Rights Watch,
2010). Available at:
http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/ictr0110webwcover.pdf.
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85
Human Rights Watch, GENOCIDE, WAR CRIMES AND CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY: TOPICAL DIGEST
OF THE CASE LAW OF THE ICTR AND THE ICTY (2004). Available at:
http://www.hrw.org/node/12172.
Medica Mondial, A STUDY: THE TROUBLE WITH RAPE TRIALS VIEWS OF WITNESSES, PROSECUTORS
AND JUDGES ON PROSECUTING SEXUALISED VIOLENCE DURING THE WAR IN THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA
(2009). Available at:
http://www.medicamondiale.org/fileadmin/content/07_Infothek/Publikationen/medica
_mondiale_and_that_it_does_not_happen_to_anyone_anywhere_in_the_world_englis
h_complete_version_dec_2009.pdf.
UNHCHR Report of the Special Rapporteur on systematic rape, sexual slavery and
slavery-like practices during armed conflict (1998). Available at:
http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/fb00da486703f751c12565a90059a227/
3d25270b5fa3ea998025665f0032f220?OpenDocument.
United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO), REVIEW OF SEXUAL
VIOLENCE ELEMENTS OF THE JUDGMENTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER
YUGOSLAVIA (ICTY), INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR RWANDA (ICTR) AND THE SPECIAL
COURT FOR SIERRA LEONE (SCSL) IN THE LIGHT OF THE SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTION 1820 (United
Nations, 2009), available at:
http://www.unrol.org/files/32914_Review%20of%20the%20Sexual%20Violence%20Ele
ments%20in%20the%20Light%20of%20the%20Security-
Council%20resolution%201820.pdf
United Nations General Assembly, International Convention for the Protection of All
Persons from Enforced Disappearance: Report of the Secretary-General, 27 July 2009,
A/64/171. Available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/disappearance-
convention.htm.
7.7.4. TREATIES
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment, adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General
Assembly resolution 39/46 of 10 December 1984, entry into force 26 June 1987, in
accordance with Art. 27 (1). Available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cat.htm .
European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment, CPT/Inf/C (2002) 1, Strasbourg, 26.XI.1987 (Text amended
according to the provisions of Protocols No. 1 (ETS No. 151) and No. 2 (ETS No. 152)
which entered into force on 1 March 2002). Available at:
http://www.cpt.coe.int/en/documents/ecpt.htm.
Organization of American States, Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish
Torture, OAS Treaty Series, No. 67 (1985). Available at:
http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-51.html .
Organization of American States, Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of
Persons, 9 June 1994. Available at: http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-
60.html.
