Water
Requirements
of
the
Rayon-
and
Acetate-Fiber
Industry
GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY
PAPER
1330-D
Water
Requirements
of
the
Rayon-
and
Acetate-Fiber
Industry
By
ORVILLE
D.
MUSSEY
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY
PAPER
1330-D
A
study
of
the
manufacturing
processes
with
emphasis
on
present
water
use
and
future
water
requirements
UNITED
STATES
GOVERNMENT
PRINTING
OFFICE,
WASHINGTON
:
1957
UNITED
STATES
DEPARTMENT
OF
THE
INTERIOR
FRED
A.
SEATON,
Secretary
GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY
Thomas
B.
Nolan,
Director
For
sale
by
the
Superintendent
of
Documents,
U.
S.
Government
Printing
Office
Washington
25,
D.
C.
-
Price
20
cents
(paper
cover)
PREFACE
This
report
is
one
of
a
series
describing
the
water
requirements
of
selected
industries
that
are
of
national
importance.
It
was
pre-
pared
at
the
request
of
and
in
consultation
with
the
Water
and
Sew-
erage
Industry
and
Utilities
Division,
Business
and
Defense
Services
Administration,
Department
of
Commerce,
and
is
designed
to
serve
the
dual
purpose
of
providing
basic
information
for
national
de-
fense
planning
and
at
the
same
time
of
providing
assistance
to
business
and
industry.
Special
acknowledgment
is
given
to
the
many
officials
of
the
companies
manufacturing
rayon
and
acetate
fiber
who
supplied
information
concerning
the
water
used
at
their
plants.
The
author
is
indebted
to
Ernest
H.
Sieveka,
chemical
engineer
of
the
Geological
Survey,
who
planned
the
scope
of
the
reports
on
the
use
of
water
in
industry
and
has
guided
and
aided
the
author
during
the
study
of
the
water
requirements
of
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
industry.
Ill
CONTENTS
Page
Abstract
...............................................................................................................................
141
Introduction
._.......................................................................... .............................................
142
Purpose
and
scope...........................................................................................................
142
History................................................................................................................................
142
Definitions
of
rayon
and
acetate....................................................................................
144
Properties
of
rayon
and
acetate
fibers..........................................................................
144
Manufacturing
processes.....................................................................................................
145
Purified
wood
cellulose...................................................................................................
145
Purified
cotton
linters
....................................................................................................
145
Viscose
rayon...................................................................................................................
147
Cuprammonium
rayon.........................................................................................................
149
Acetate...............................................................................................................................
149
Wastes.....................................................................................................................................
150
Rayon.................................................................................................................................
150
Acetate...............................................................................................................................
151
Water
requirements
for
preparation
of
raw
material..........................................................
151
Quantitative
water
requirements..........................................................................................
152
Review
of
literature.........................................................................................................
152
Field
surveys.....................................................................................................................
153
Unit
water-use
requirements........................................................................................
153
Consumptive
water
use................................................................................................
155
Qualitative
water
requirements............................................................................................
156
Published
data...................................................................................................................
156
Process
water................................................................................................................
156
Boiler-feed
water...........................................................................................................
158
Cooling
water.................................................................................................................
158
Field
surveys.....................................................................................................................
160
Quality
of
untreated
water...........................................................................................
160
Water
treatment..............................................................................................................
166
Future
water
requirements....................................................................................................
J67
Location
of
industry.........................................................................................................
167
Growth
of
industry.........................................................................................................
167
Present
capacity
of
plants...........................................................................................
170
Trends
in
the
rayon
and
acetate
fiber
industry.............................................................
173
Summary..................................................................................................................................
174
Quantitative
water
requirements.....................................................................................
174
Quantitative
water
requirements.....................................................................................
174
Trends
in
water
requirements
.........................................................................................
175
Selected
references...............................................................................................................
175
Index.......................................................................................................................................
179
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Figure
24.
Frequency
distribution
of
chemical
characteristics
in
untreated
water
supplies
used
for
process
water
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose-rayon
fiber......................................................................................
163
VI
CONTENTS
Page
Figure
25.
Frequency
distribution
of
physical
characteristics
in
untreated
water
supplies
used
for
process
water
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose-
rayon
fiber
....................................................................................................
164
26.
Chemical
composition
of
a
typical
untreated
water
used
for
process
water
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose-rayon
fiber......................................
165
27.
Location
of
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants,
1952.......................................
168
28.
United
States
and
world
production
of
rayon and
acetate
fiber
by
(A)
quantity
and
(B)
percent,
1930-53
.............................................................
169
29.
Mill
consumption
of
selected
fibers
in
the
United
States
by
(A)
quantity
and
(B)
percent,
1930-53.............................................................
171
30.
Production
of
types
of
rayon
and
acetate
fibers
by
(A)
quantity
and
(B)
percent,
1930-53...................................................................................
172
TABLES
Page
Table
1.
Suggested
maximum
allowable
concentrations
of
dissolved
and
suspended
constituents
in
process
water
used
for
making
purified
wood
cellulose
for
viscose-rayon
fiber
....................................................
152
2.
Gallons
of
water
per
pound of
product,
arranged
by
product,
use,
and
magnitude
.............................................................................................
154
3.
Source
of
water
used
in
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
manufacture
in
the
United
States,
1952-53
survey.................................................................
155
4.
Suggested
maximum
concentrations
of
dissolved
and
suspended
constituents
and
range
of
recommended
threshold
of
process
water
for
the
manufacture
of
viscose-rayon
fiber...............................................
157
5.
Specifications
for
water
quality
for
rayon-fiber
manufacture.....................
158
6.
Suggested
water-quality
tolerance
for
boiler-feed
water
............................
159
7.
Quality
characteristics
of
untreated
water
used
for
cooling
and
processing
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose-rayon
fiber............................
161
8.
Quality
characteristics
of
untreated
water
used
for
cooling
and
processing
in
the
manufacture
of
acetate
fiber.......................................
*62
9.
Properties
of
untreated
water
used
for
the
manufacture
of
viscose-
rayon
and
acetate
fiber...............................................................................
166
10.
Water-treatment
methods
at
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants......................
166
11.
Most
important
quality
characteristics
of
untreated
water
used
for
process
water
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose-rayon
fiber.....................
1'5
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
THE
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER
INDUSTRY
By
Orville
D.
Mussey
ABSTRACT
Water
is
required
for
several
purposes
in
the
manufacture
of
rayon
and
acetate
fiber.
These
water
requirements,
as
indicated
by
a
survey
of
the
water
used
by
the
plants
op-
erating
in
1953,
are
both
quantitative
and
qualitative.
About
300
mgd
(million
gallons
per
day)
of
water
was
used
in
1953
in
the
preparation
of
purified
wood
cellulose
and
cotton
linters,
the
basic
material
from
which
the
rayon
and
acetate
fiber
is
made.
An
additional
620
mgd
was
used
in
the
process
of
converting
the
cellulose
to
rayon
and
acetate
fiber.
The
total,
920
mgd,
is
about
1
percent
of
the
total
estimated
withdrawals
of
industrial
water
in
the
United
States
in
1953.
The
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants
are
scattered
through
eastern
United
States
and
generally
are
located
in
small
towns
or
rural
areas
where
there
are
abundant
supplies
of
clean,
soft
water.
Water
use
at
a
typical
rayon-fiber
plant
was
about
9
mgd,
and
at
a
typical
acetate-fiber
plant
about
38
mgd.
About
110
gallons
of
water
was
used
to
produce
a
pound of
rayon
fiber 32
gallons
per
pound
was
process
water
and
the
remainder
was
used
largely
for
cooling
in
connec-
tion
with
power
production
and
air
conditioning.
For
the
manufacture
of
a
pound
of
acetate
fiber
about
170
gallons
of
water
was
used.
However,
the
field
survey
on
which
this
report
is
based
indicated
a
wide
range
in
the
amount
of
water
used
per
pound
of
product.
For
example,
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose
rayon,
the
maximum
unit
water
use
was
8
times
the
minimum
unit
water
use.
Water
use
in
summer
was
about
22
percent
greater
than
aver-
age
annual
use.
About
8
mgd
of
water
was
consumed
by
evaporation
in
the
manufacture
of
rayon
and
acetate
fiber.
More
than
90
percent
of
the
water
used
by
the
rayon
and
acetate
industry
was
with-
drawn
from
surface-water
sources,
about
8
percent
from
ground
water,
and
less
than
2
percent
from
municipal
water
supplies.
All
available
analyses
of
the
untreated
waters
used
by
the
rayon
and
acetate
industry
were
collected
and
studied.
The
untreated
waters
were
generally
cool,
low
in
content
of
calcium and
magnesium,
and
very
low
in
iron
and
manganese.
At
many
plants,
water
was
obtained
from
more
than
one
source,
and
thus
had
different
quality
characteristics.
Dis-
solved
solids
in
all
the
untreated
waters
analyzed
ranged
between
14
and
747
ppm
(parts
per
million)
but
in
those
waters
used
in
processing
the
dissolved
solids
content
was
less
than
200
ppm.
The
cooling
water
used
by
the
industry
is
also
generally
of
very high
quality,
princi-
pally
because
the
requirements
for
a
high-quality
process
water
necessitate
location
of
the
plants
in
areas
where
such
water
is
available.
141
142
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE
AND
SCOPE
The
results
of
a
survey
of
the
quantitative
and
qualitative
water
requirements
of
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
manufacturers
are
presented
in
this
report.
Such
information
will aid
in
planning
the
location
of new
plants
using
large
amounts
of
industrial
water
for
the
production
of
either
rayon
or
acetate
fiber
or
of
other
material.
The
literature
was
carefully
studied
to
gather
as
much
informa-
tion as
possible
about
the
use
of
water
in
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
manufacture,
particularly
how
much
and
what kind
of
water
was
required
for
economical
operation.
Plants
that
prepared
the
spe-
cial
purified
wood
cellulose
and
cotton
linters
used
as
a
raw
material
in
cellulosic-fiber
manufacture
also
are
included
in
this
study.
A
field
survey
of
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants
was
made
to
determine
the
amount
and
quality
of
the
water
used
at
each
plant,
the
way
the
water
was
used,
the
amount
of
water
that
was
reused,
and
the
total
consumptive
water
use.
Similar
information
for
two
cellophane
plants
was
obtained
because
it
was
found
that
water
requirements
for
the
manufacture
of
vis
cose-ray
on
fiber
and
the
manufacture
of
cellophane
were
nearly
identical.
The
information
obtained included
source
or
sources
of
supply,
ade-
quacy
of
the
supply,
temperature
of
the
water,
treatment
given
the
water,
and
particularly
any
unusual
practices
in
water
use
and
the
reasons
for
such
practices.
The
source
of
water
used
for
cooling,
washing,
process,
boiler
feed,
sanitary,
and
chemical
recovery
was
also
sought.
The
type
of
raw
material
used
and
the
amount
and
kind
of
fiber
produced
at
each
plant
were
ascertained
to
determine
the
relation
to
water
use.
All
water
used
at
the
plants
was
part
of
the
ordinary
operation
of
cellulosic-fiber
plants
and
thus
was
considered
a
part
of
the
plant
use.
Any
estimate
of
the
future
water
requirements
of
these
indus-
tries
would
normally
be
based
on
an
estimate
of
the
future
pro-
duction
of
rayon
and
acetate
fiber.
Therefore,
a
brief
history
of
the
growth
of
the
industries
has
been
included
to
explain
past
changes
in
production
rates
and
assist
in
estimating
the
future
rates
of
production.
HISTORY
Nearly
300
years
ago
Robert
Hooke
envisioned
the
possibilities
of
creating
artificial
silk
by
chemical
means.
It
seemed
possible
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY
143
to
him
that,
if
a
silkworm
could
spew
out
a
fiber
produced
from
a
diet
of
mulberry
leaves,
man
could
discover
how
to
make
sim-
ilar
fibers
from
vegetable
matter.
However,
it
was
not
until
1884
that
the
nitrocellulose
process
for
making
artificial
silk
was
pat-
ented.
The
viscose
process
was
patented
in
1892
and
the
acetate
process
in
the
following
year.
The
first
cuprammonium
yarn
was
made
commercially
in
Germany
in
1898.
The
early
history
of
the
manufacture
of
artificial
silk
is
one
of
bankruptcies
and
reorganizations
of
companies
that
did
not
exist
long
enough to
solve
the
problem
of
economically
producing
and
selling
a
product
that
could
compete
with
natural
fibers.
The
first
artificial
silk
was
coarse
and
harsh
and
only
the
lustrous
sheen
of
real
silk
was
attained.
The
fibers
produced
by
the
cuprammonium
process
were
the
only
ones
that
had
what
William
Haynes
(1953)
described
as
"the
sensuous
feel
and
the
soft,
clinging
drape
of
silk,
"
but
these
fibers
were
physically
weak;
machines
designed
for
use
with
silk
or
cotton
could
handle
the
knitting
and
weaving
of
cuprammonium
fibers
only
by
slowing
down
their
operation.
The
cuprammonium
fibers
remained
weak
until
aprocess
for
strength-
ening
the
filaments
by
stretching
them
was
adopted
in
1919.
Grad-
ually
the
producers
of
viscose
and
acetate
fiber
learned
to
make
finer
and
stronger
fibers,
until
these
artificial-silk
fibers
rivaled
natural
silk.
No
commercially successful
artificial
silk
plants
had
been
es-
tablished
in
America
before
1910,
but
in
that
year
the
English
firm
of
Courtaulds
constructed
at
Marcus
Hook,
Pa.,
the
first
plant
of
what
was
to
become
the
American
Viscose
Corporation.
The
suc-
cess
of
this
enterprise
resulted
from
the
acquirement
of
the
American
rights
to
a
group
of
patents
that
previously
were
held
by
competitive
companies.
From
1910
to
1920
production
was
doubled
and
redoubled
and
new
plants
were built,
but
the
supply
lagged
be-
hind
demand.
After
1920,.
when
the
patents
expired,
many
other
companies
established
plants
in
the
United
States
until,
in
1923,
this
country
was
producing
one-third
of
the
world's
artificial
silk,
twice
as
much
as
any
other
country.
In
1924
the
entire
product
of
this
industry
was
renamed
rayon.
The
15
years
following
the
adoption
of
the
new
name
showed
a
rapid
increase
in
production
in
the
United
States,
but
the
world
picture
so
changed
that
by
1939
the
United
States
was
producing
only
one-sixth
of
the
world
supply;
Germany,
Italy,
and
Japan
were
producing
nearly
two-thirds
of
the
supply;
and
the
rest
of
the
world
was
producing
the
remaining
one-sixth.
During
this
period
many
changes
took
place
in
the
American
industry.
One
of
the
most
significant
changes
occurred
in
1938
when
the
first
continuous-
process
rayon
plant
was
placed
in
commercial
operation,
and
4Z6143
O
-57
-2
144
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
established
new
standards
of
uniform
quality
for
the
entire
industry.
Cellulose
acetate
was
only
about
3
percent
of
the
total
rayon
and
acetate
production
for
1925,
but
by
1940
nearly
one-third
of
the
production
was
acetate.
As
early
as
1934
high-tenacity
rayon
filaments
suitable
for
automobile
tires,
belting,
and
other
heavy
duty
fabrics
were
introduced
and
replaced,
for
the
most
part,
the
costly
long-fiber
cottons that
had
been
used
previously.
Rayon
and
acetate
staple
fiber
(filament
cut
into
short
lengths
for
thread
and
textile
manufacture
by
the
same
methods
used
for
cotton
and
wool)
and
tow
(a
rope
of
parallel
filaments
from
which
such
staple
can
be
readily
produced)
now
(1953)
constitute
about a
quarter
of
our
total
cellulosic-fiber
production.
DEFINITIONS
OF
RAYON
AND
ACETATE
The
literature
dealing
with
manmade
fibers
of
cellulosic
origin
is
somewhat confusing
because
of
the
changes in
nomenclature
of
the
product.
For
many
years
before
1924
such
fibers
were
gen-
erally
described
as
artificial
silk.
In
1924,
the
Federal
Trade
Commission
ruled
that
any
fiber
of
cellulosic
origin
should
be
called
rayon
in
marketing
and
advertising.
Later,
however,
the
Federal
Trade
Commission
(1951)
defined
rayon
as
"manmade
textile
fibers
and
filaments
composed
of
regenerated
cellulose,
and
yarn,
thread,
or
textile
fabric
made
of
such
fibers
and
fila-
ments.
"
At
the
same
time
it
defined
acetate
as
"manmade
textile
fibers
and
filaments
composed
of
cellulose
acetate,
and
yarn,
thread,
or
textile
fabric
made
of
such
fibers
and
filaments.
"
PROPERTIES
OF
RAYON
AND
ACETATE
FIBERS
Viscose
and
cuprammonium
rayons
are
somewhat
alike,
but
acetate
differs
from
the
others
in
several
respects.
Cuprammo-
nium
rayon
generally
is
composed
of
filaments
of
smaller
diameter
than
viscose
rayon
and
usually
is
woven
into
a
sheer
fabric
called
bemberg.
Acetate
fabrics
have
a
suppleness
that
results
in
a
more
pleasing
drape
and
a
finer
"feel"
than
rayon
fabrics
made
from
yarn
of
the
same
denier.
The
denier
is
a
measure
of
the
size
of
filaments
or
yarn;
it
is
the
weight
in
grams
of
9,000
meters
of
filament
or
yarn the
finer
the
yarn
the
smaller
the
denier.
Rayon
may
be
dyed
using
selected
dyes
that
have
an
affinity
for
cotton,
but
special
acetate
dyes
generally
are
used
for
acetate
RAYON- AND
ACETATE-FIBER
INDUSTRY
145
fibers.
Acetate
blends
well
with
other
synthetic
and
natural
fibers;
this
permits
some
interesting
color
effects
as
the
fibers
may
be
affected
differently
by
a
single
dyeing
process.
Acetate
is
thermo-
plastic
and
may
be
pleated
permanently
or
given
a
moire
effect
by
the
use
of
heat.
The
regular
grade
of
viscose
rayon
is
not
quite
as
strong
as
cuprammonium
rayon
but
is
stronger
than
the
regular
grade
of
acetate.
Saponified
acetate
fiber
(cellulose
acetate
fiber
which
has
been
chemically
transformed
into
cellulose)
is
stronger
than
high-tenacity
viscose
fiber.
The
different
properties
of
the
various
kinds
of
cellulosic
fibers
have
strongly
affected
the
trends
in
their
production.
MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES
The
brief
descriptions
of
the
manufacturing
processes
that
fol-
low
are
based
on
reports
by
Mauersberger
(1952)
and
Shreve
(1945)
and
on
information,
obtained
from
visits
to
the
rayon
and
acetate
plants.
Only
enough
process
description
is
presented
to
enable
the
reader
to
understand
where
water
enters
into
the
proc-
esses
and
the
water
quality
requirements
for
the
different
uses.
Although
the
manufacturers
of
rayon
and
acetate
were
quite
willing
to
discuss
the
use
of
water
in
a
general
way,
details
of
the
flow
of
water
through
the
plants
were
not
available.
Large
amounts
of
water
are
used
for
washing
and
process
but
most
of
the
water
is
used
for
power
production,
temperature
control
of
proc-
ess,
factory
air
conditioning,
and
chemical
recovery.
PURIFIED
WOOD
CELLULOSE
Purified
wood
cellulose
(high
in
alpha-cellulose
content)
is
made
by
methods
similar
to
those
used
in
producing
wood
pulp
for
paper
manufacture
(Mussey,
1955,
p.
7 15).
The
basic
difference
is
that
considerable
effort
is
made
to
separate
a
large
part
of
the
beta
and
gamma
cellulose
(low
molecular
weight)
from
the
alpha
cellulose
(high
molecular
weight).
The
alpha-cellulose
derivatives
dissolve
to
form
solutions
suitable
for
rayon
and
acetate
manu-
facture.
Purified
wood
cellulose
is
produced
from
wood
chips
that
are
first
treated
with
acid
and
then
with
caustic
soda
or
other
strong
alkalis.
In
the
sulfite
process,
a
mixture
of
sulfurous
acid
and
calcium
and
magnesium
bisulfite
breaks
down
the
lignins
into
a
soluble
146
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
product
of
lignin
and
sulfuric
acid
and
partially
hydrolyzes
the
beta
and
gamma
cellulose
to
sugar.
The
beta
and
gamma
cel-
lulose
are
removed
later
with
caustic
soda.
Knots,
bark
frag-
ments,
and
pieces
of
unpulped
chips
are
removed
by
screening.
This
is
followed
by
bleaching
(with
chlorine
or
hypochlorite)
and
purification.
The
cellulose
is
thoroughly
washed
using
multistage,
counter-
current
backwashing
at
each
stage
of
the
process,
for
which
large
quantities
of
pure
water
are
needed.
As
the
wood
cellulose
acts
as
a
filter
and
removes
many
of
the
substances
in
suspension
in
the
water,
the
wash
water
should
be
almost
entirely
free
of
sus-
pended
matter
and
salts
of
such
metals
as
copper,
iron,
and
manganese.
Some
purified
wood
cellulose
is
prepared
by
a
modified
sulfate
process
in
which
the
wood
chips
are
treated
with
dilute
sulfuric
acid
followed
by
the
conventional
sulfate
process
which
involves
cooking
in
a
liquor
containing
sodium
sulfide
and
caustic
soda.
The
cooking
is
followed
by
washing,
screening,
and
bleaching
similar
to
that
followed
in
the
sulfite
process.
After
bleaching
and
purification,
the
fibers'
are
formed
on
a
Fourdrinier
papermaking
machine
into
sheets
that
resemble
blot-
ting
paper.
These
sheets
are
then
shipped
either
in
bales
of
flat
sheets
or
in
rolls
to
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants.
PURIFIED
COTTON
LINTERS
Cotton
linters
are
the
very
short
cellulose
fibers
that
cling
to
the
cotton
seed
after
the
ginning
process.
These
short
fibers
are
cut
from
the
seeds
in
preparing
them
for
the oil
press.
Natural
impurities
and
foreign
matter
are
removed
from
the
fibers
by
cooking
in
dilute
caustic
soda
in
steel
digesters
under
steam
pres-
sure.
The
linters
are
then washed
and
bleached
with
chlorine
in
multiple
stages
with
close control
of
pH,
temperature,
and
time.
Enormous
amounts
of
high-quality
water
must
be
used
for
washing
after
each
stage
of
bleaching.
Cotton
linters,
like
wood
cellulose,
act as
a
filter
and
will
retain
any
impurities
in
the
wash
water.
Such
impurities
may
make
the
product
unusable.
Processed
chemical
cotton
may
be
either
dried
and
baled
or
processed,
by
the
use
of
standard
papermaking machinery,
into
sheets
that
re-
semble
blotting
paper.
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY
147
VISCOSE
RAYON
Sheets
of
purified
wood
cellulose
(or
cotton
linters)
are
placed
in
steeping
presses
where
they
are
soaked
2 4
hours
in
an
18
per-
cent
caustic
soda
solution
at
controlled
temperatures.
Much
of
the
remaining
beta
and
gamma
cellulose
goes
into
solution
in
the
caustic,
and
the
alpha
cellulose
is
converted
to
alkali
cellulose.
The
caustic
soda
solution
containing
nearly
all
of
the
dissolved
beta
and
gamma
cellulose
is
pressed
from
the
cellulose
sheets
and
sent
to
chemical
recovery.
Sheets
of
alkali
cellulose
are
reduced
to
small
crumbs
in
a
wa-
ter-jacketed
shredder
at
carefully
controlled
temperatures.
The
crumbs
are
aged
for
variable
periods
also
at
very
definite
tem-
peratures;
this
results
in
a
change
in
the
molecular
structure.
After
the
aging
is
completed,
the
crumbs
are
placed
in
a
barratte,
which
is
a
hexagonal
horizontal
iron-drum
mixer.
One
pound
of
carbon
disulfide
is
added
for
each
10
pounds
of
crumbs.
In
2
or
3
hours
the
alkali
cellulose
is
converted
to
cellulose
xanthate.
The
excess
carbon
disulfide
is
exhausted,
and
the
cellulose
xanthate
is
dissolved
in
a
dilute
solution
of
caustic
soda
in
a
water-jacketed
mixer.
Several
batches
are
blended,
and
the
blend
is
aged
or
ripened
until
it
is
about
ready
to
coagulate.
The
temperature
is
very
carefully
controlled.
When
the
viscosity
is
suitable,
the
solution
is
filtered,
and
the
filtrate
is
placed
under
vacuum
for
24
hours.
The
viscose
solution
is
then
pumped
to
the
spinning
machine
where
it
is
filtered
again
and
extruded
through minute
holes
in
a
spin-
neret
into
an
acid
bath
where
it
coagulates
to
form
filaments
of
regenerated
cellulose.
The
bath
consists
of
warm
water
that
contains
8 12
percent
sulfuric
acid,
13^ 20
percent
sodium
sulfate,
1
percent
zinc
sul-
fate
or
magnesium
sulfate,
and
4 10
percent
glucose.
The
quality
of
the
bath
is
kept
uniform
by
continuous
circulation
to
a
large
supply
tank.
Because
the
bath
loses
acid
and
gains
water
and
sodium
sulfate,
sulfuric
acid
is
added
to
the
bath,
and
from
time
to
time
withdrawals
of
liquid
from
the
solution
are
made
to
a
lead-lined
evaporator
where
the
excess
water
is
removed
by
evaporation
and
the
concentrated
solution
is
cooled.
This
causes
the
excess
sodium
sulfate
to
settle
out
as
Glauber
salt,
and
the
remaining
liquid
is
returned
to
the
spinning
bath.
Three
different
systems
are
used
for
processing
the
thread
after
it
leaves
the
spinning
bath.
148
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
(1)
Most
rayon
is
produced
by
passing
the
gathered
filaments
into
the
center
of
the
top
of
a
bucket
revolving
at
6,000 10,000
revolutions
per
minute.
The
coils
of
rayon
threads
collected
in
the
bucket
are
called
cakes.
Considerable
water
is
used
in
comple-
ting
the
treatment
of
the
cakes.
A
warm
alkaline-water
rinse
is
used
first
to
deacidify
the
filaments;
next
a
dilute
sodium
sulfide
wash
is
used
to
remove
the
yellow
color
that
results
from
the
residual
sulfur;
and
then
the
cakes
receive
a
thorough
warm-water
rinse
which
is
followed
by
a
cold-water
rinse.
If
it
is
desired
to
bleach
the
thread
completely
it
is
next
subjected
to
a
weak
solu-
tion
of
sodium
hypochlorite
followed
by
a
bath
of
dilute
hydrochlo-
ric
or
sulfuric
acid
which
stops
the
bleaching
action,
after
which
another
thorough
rinse
in
warm
water
is
followed
by
a
cold-water
rinse.
The
final
bath
is
an
emulsion
of
water
and
oil
or
soap
which
improves
the
softness
and
pliability
of
the
yarn.
The
cakes
are
then
slowly
dried
60-72
hours
at
temperatures
of
160°-180°F
allowing
the
cakes
to
shrink
sufficiently
to
relieve
tensions
in
the
yarn.
The
whole
process
from
spinning
to
cured
cake
takes
about
90
hours.
(2)
In
a
system
using
bobbins
the
filaments
are
wound,
without
twisting,
on
a
perforated
core.
The
wound
bobbins
are
removed
from
the
machine,
deacified,
desulfured,
and
rinsed
in
a
bobbin-
washing
machine
as
were
the
cakes.
(3)
A
continuous
system
of
viscose
manufacture
has
been
de-
veloped
which
permits
production
of
a
yarn
of
more
uniform
qual-
ity
than
can
be
manufactured
by
processing
the
rayon
in
cakes
or
spools.
One
method
involves
a
series
of
thread-advancing
reels
offset
horizontally
and
vertically
like
stairs.
On
each
reel
the
thread
receives
a
special
chemical
or
washing
treatment,
each
step
representing
one
of
the
series
of
treatments
described
in
the
first,
or
bucket,
system. Thread
is
dried
on
the
last
reel
or
reels,
twisted
by
passage
over
cap
twisters,
and
wound
on
bobbins
hold-
ing
several
pounds
of
dry
yarn.
The
entire
process
from
spinning
bath
to
bobbin
requires
about
6
minutes.
Several
other
methods
for
continuous
production
by
the
viscose
process
also
have
been
developed.
All
the
buildings
(even
ones
used
for
packaging)
are
usually
air
conditioned,
with-
control
over
both
temperature
and
humidity.
This
extensive
air
conditioning
was
found
desirable
to
facilitate
the
operation
of
the
yarn-handling
machinery.
Large
amounts
of
cooling
water
are
used
in
air
conditioning
and
also
in
maintaining
desirable
temperatures
within
narrow
limits
at
some
points
in the
process.
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER
INDUSTRY
149
CUPRAMMONIUM
RAYON
Cuprammonium
rayon
is
manufactured
by
first
dissolving
cotton
linters
or purified
wood
pulp
in
Schweitzer's
reagent,
which
is
an
ammoniacal
solution
of
copper
hydroxide.
After
passing
through
filters
this
spinning
solution
is
pumped
from
the
spinnerets
into
spinning
funnels
through
which
deaerated
water
is
flowing.
This
water
removes
about
a
third
of
the
copper
and
most
of
the
ammonia
causing
a
mild
coagulation
of
the
cellulose.
During
spinning,
the
fibers
are
stretched
until
they
have
a
cross
section
that
is
only
about
one
five-thousandth
of
the
area
of
the
spinneret
holes.
The
thread
then
is
passed
into
a
bath
of
dilute
sulfuric
acid
which
completes
the
hardening
of
the
threads
by
converting
the
remaining
ammonia
to
ammonium
sulfate
and
the
remaining
copper
to
copper
sulfate.
The
untwisted
thread
is
wound
on
reels
to
form
skeins
that
are
laced
to
prevent
tangling
during
washing.
Copper
sulfate,
ammonium
sulfate,
and
excess
acid
are
washed
out,
and
lubricants
are
introduced
to
soften
the
threads;
and
then
the
skeins
are
dried.
A
second
bath
contains
an
emulsion
of
soap
and
oil
to
further
soften
the
thread
and
may
contain
tints
for
temporarily
coloring
the
material
for
identification.
After
a
second
drying,
the
skeins
are
packaged
to
suit
the
customer.
ACETATE
Purified
cellulose
is
selected
from
several
different
batches
to
help
in
maintaining
uniform
quality
in
the
final
product.
Most,
but not
all,
of
the
moisture
normally
present
in
the
cellulose
is
first
removed
in
a
tunnel
dryer
at
low
temperatures.
The
cellulose
is
dissolved
in
a
mixing
tank
called
an
acetylator,
which
is
equipped
with
a
stirring
device
and
is
jacketed
for
con-
trol
of
temperature
by
a
liquid
medium
that
has
a
range
from
20°
to
120°F. The
cellulose
is
introduced
slowly
into
a
mixture
of
glacial
acetic
acid
mixed
with
a
small
amount
of
sulfuric
acid.
During
this
time
the
mix
is
agitated,
and
the
temperature
is
kept
below
45°F.
Acetic
anhydride,
with
sufficient
sulfuric
acid
to
act
as
a
catalyst, is
added;
the
temperature
is
kept
below
68°F
during
the
first
hour
and
then
raised
to
86°F.
After
several
hours
the
acetylation
is
complete,
and
a
heavy
viscous
clear
solution
results.
Exact
time,
temperature,
and
catalyst
control
are
important
factors
in
producing
a
desirable
end
product.
The
output
of
the
acetylator
is
cellulose
triacetate
which
is
soluble
only
in
costly
solvents
and
is
too
impervious
to
moisture
and
dyes.
Therefore,
cellulose
triacetate
is
converted
to
diacetate,
which
is
soluble
in
acetone.
150
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
This
conversion
is
accomplished
by
placing
the
cellulose
tri-
acetate
into
an
aging
tank
where
water
and
acetic
acid
are
added
and
the
temperature
is
maintained
at
higher
levels
than
in
the
acetylator.
Hydrolysis
of
the
cellulose
triacetate
occurs
and
acetic
acid
is
liberated.
When
samples
indicate
the
desired
acetyl
content
has
been
reached,
the
secondary
acetate
in
the
aging
tank
is
precipitated
in
the
form
of
flakes
by
discharging
it
into
a
large
volume
of
water.
The
flakes
are
washed
several
times
by
decant-
ing,
centrifuging,
and
rewashing,
after
which
they
are
dried
in
a
centrifuge
and
a
steam
drier.
A
spinning
solution
is
prepared
by
dissolving
flakes
from
dif-
ferent
batches
in
acetone
and
a
small
amount
of
water.
After
repeated
filtering
and
deaerating,
the
spinning
solution
is
ready
for
the
spinning
machine.
Acetate
fibers
are
produced
by
discharging
the
spinning
fluid
through
a
spinneret
into
a
cabinet
through
which
air
at
about
134°F
is
passing.
This
air,
which
is
slightly
above
the
boiling
point
of
acetone,
removes
the
acetone
by
evaporation.
At
the
end
of
the
cabinet
the
filaments
are
gathered
together,
lubricated,
and
wound
in
a
suitable
package.
A
very
strong
saponified
acetate,
which
has
very
important
military
and
industrial
uses,
may
be
produced
by
saponification
with
caustic
soda
or
other
alkalis
while
the
material
is
under
high
tension.
Saponified
acetate
fiber
may
be
dyed
with
viscose-rayon
dyes.
A
partially
saponified
acetate
that
takes
on
some
of
the
properties
of
both
acetate
and
rayon
is
generally
used
as
staple
fiber.
Both
of
these
processes
require
additional
water
for
proc-
ess
and
subsequent
washing.
WASTES
RAYON
In
viscose-rayon
manufacture,
four
different
types
of
waste
from
the
plants
are
emptied
into
sewers:
(1)
sanitary
sewage;
(2)
wastes
from
that
part
of
the
plant
where
the
viscose
syrup
is
produced these
wastes
are
strongly
alkaline
on
the
pH
scale;
(3)
wastes
that
result
from
regeneration
of
the
viscose,
includ-
ing
the
first
washing
of
the
regenerated
fiber these
wastes
are
strongly
acid;
and
(4)
acid
wastes
from
final
treatment
of
the
rayon
fibers.
Each
of
these
wastes
generally
is
kept
separate
to
facilitate
treatment.
At
their
Front
Royal,
Va.,
plant
(Roetman,
1944),
the
American
Viscose
Corporation
treats
the
sanitary
sewage
in
Imhoff
tanks
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER
INDUSTRY
151
and
trickling
filters.
The
effluent
from
this
process
is
mixed
with
the
effluent
from
a
biochemical
treatment
of
the
sodium
sulfide
wastes
from
desulfuring
the
fiber
in
the
aftertreatment.
The
alka-
line
wastes
from
the
production
of
viscose
solution
are
added
to
acid
wastes
from
the
spinning
and
aftertreatment
departments,
and
the
combined
waste,
which
is
always
acid,
is
neutralized
by
the
ad-
dition
of
a
lime
slurry.
Wastes
from
the
biochemical
treatments
are
added,
after
which
the
mixture
of
all
the
liquid
wastes
passes
to
a
settling
and
retention
basin
where
the
suspended
matter
set-
tles
out
and
the
effluent
is
returned
to
the
South
Fork
Shenandoah
River.
Very
little
information
could
be
found
regarding
cuprammonium-
rayon
waste,
but
one
authority
(Besselievre,
1952)
indicates
that
cupr
ammonium-rayon
waste has
a
biochemical
oxygen
demand
of-
only
about
4
percent
of
that
of
viscose-rayon
waste
per
pound
of
end
product.
Cuprammonium-rayon
waste
appears
to
be
a
very
minor
problem,
although
American
Bemberg,
only
cuprammonium-
rayon
manufacturer
in
the
United
States,
took
the
lead
in
Tennessee
in
equipping
its
plant
with
facilities
for
treatment
of
industrial
wastes
(Norman,
1948).
ACETATE
Most
of
the
waste
from
the
manufacture
of
acetate
fiber
results
from
the
recovery
of
dilute
acetic
acid
and
the
conversion
of
some
of
the
recovered
acetic
acid
to
acetic
anhydride
(Roznoy,
1954).
The
waste
contains
small
amounts
of
acetic
acid,
acetate,
cellulose-
acetate
fines,
sugars
resulting
from
hydrolysis
of
the
cellulose,
and
appreciable
amounts
of
sulfate.
One
troublesome
feature
of
this
waste
is
its
relatively
high
biochemical
oxygen
demand.
In
recent
laboratory
scale
tests,
the
biochemical
oxygen
demand
has
been
reduced
as
much
as
93
percent
by
aerobic
biologic
treat-
ment
methods.
Testing
on
a
pilot-plant
scale
is
planned,
but
results
are
not
yet
available.
However,
this
would
not
reduce
the
sulfate
content.
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
FOR
PREPARATION
OF
RAW
MATERIAL
Large
amounts
of
water
are
used
for
the
manufacture
of
purified
wood
cellulose,
but
the
only
figure
obtained
for
unit
water
use
was
200,000
gallons
per
ton
of
purified
wood
cellulose
at
an
unidentified
pulp
mill
(Technical
Association
of
the
Pulp
and
Paper
Industry,
1942).
No
figures
were
obtained
as
to
the
quantity
of
water
used
for
the
purification
of
cotton
linters,
the
other
basic
raw
material,
but
a
comparison
of
the
process
used
in
purifying
cotton
linters
with
that
used
in
refining
wood
cellulose
reveals
that
the
unit
water
use
is
perhaps
about
half
that
for
purified
wood
cellulose.
4Z6~143
O
-57-3
152
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
An
estimated
300
mgd,
based
on
200,000
gallons
per
ton
of
purified
wood
cellulose
and
about
half
that
amount
per
ton
of
re-
fined
cotton
linters,
was
used
in
1953
for
the
preparation
of
special
cellulose
for
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
manufacture.
This
is
a
water
requirement
for
the
plants
that
refine
the
purified
wood
cellulose
and
cotton
linters
and
not
for
the
rayon-
and
acetate-
fiber
plants.
The
quality
of
the
water
used
in
manufacturing
purified
wood
cellulose
must
be
quite
high;
suggested
maximum
allowable
con-
centrations
for
several
of
the
ordinary
constituents
of
process
water
are
shown
in
table
1.
If
these constituents
are
present
in
Table
1.
Suggested
maximum
allowable
concentrations
of
dissolved
and
suspended
con-
stituents
in
process
water
used
for
making
purified
wood
cellulose
for
viscose-rayon
fiber
[Modified
from
American
Water
Wodts
Association,
1950,
p.
67]
Constituent
Turbidity...............................
...... ,
Hardness
as
CaCOs^j.........................
IronCFe).........................................
Ppm
5
5
8
.05
.03
.05
Constituent
Aluminum
oxide
(A1
Z
OL).......................
Silica
(SiO,).......................................
Copper
(Cu)..
.............
.......................
*:
*
*
Ppm
100
50
8
25
5
the
process
water
in
amounts
greater
than
those
suggested,
they
may
cause
difficulties
of
two
types:
undesirable
colors
in
the
finished
synthetic
fibers
may
result
from
three
of
the
constituents
color,
iron,
and
manganese becoming
concentrated
in
the
pulp
by
being
filtered
out
of
the
process
water;
increased
ash
content
of
the
cellulose,
which
makes
it
unsuitable
for
use
as
a
raw
material
for
rayon
and
acetate
fiber,
may
occur
if
all
of
the
constituents
shown
in
table
1
are
filtered
out
of
the
wash
water.
Although
no
quality
requirements
were
obtained
for
water
for
purifying
cotton
linters,
the
similarity
in
processes
for
purifying
them
and
for
manufacturing
purified
wood
cellulose
suggests
that
the
specifications
for
the
chemical
quality
of
the
water
used
should
be
similar
to
those
given
in
table
1.
QUANTITATIVE
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
REVIEW
OF
LITERATURE
The
most
recent
figures
compiled
by
the
American
Water
Works
Association
(1953,
p.
8)
indicate
that
the
water
used
in
production
of
rayon
is
45 100
gallons
per
pound
of
yarn.
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER
INDUSTRY
153
According
to
H.
R.
Mauersberger
(1952),
1
pound
of
viscose
-
rayon
yarn
requires
about
30 60
gallons
of
water
and
1
pound
of
cellulose-acetate
fiber
requires
about
10
gallons
of
processing
water.
This
10
gallons
per
pound
for
processing
water
is
con-
sistent
with
a
total
water
requirement
of
1,000
gallons
per
pound,
as
nearly
all
of
the
water
used
in
manufacturing
acetate
fiber
is
used
for
steam-power
production,
temperature
control
of
process,
factory
air
conditioning,
and
chemical
recovery.
E.
R.
Riegel
(1949)
stated
that
100-200
gallons
of
pure
water
is
required
to
produce
1
pound
of
viscose-rayon
yarn
and
about
1,
000
gallons
is
used
to
produce
1
pound
of
cellulose
acetate.
Two
figures
for
quantity
of
water
used
per
unit
produced
are
given
in
Chemical
and
Metallurgical
Engineering
(1947).
Notes
on
the
flow
sheets
state
that 45 80
gallons
of
water
is
used
to
produce
1
pound
of
cuprammonium
rayon
and
90 100
gallons
to
produce
1
pound
of
viscose
rayon.
The
U.
S.
Tariff
Commission
(1944,
p.
92)
stated
that
rayon
manufacture
requires
large
quantities
of
clean,
soft
water;
about
150 200
gallons
to
produce
1
pound
of
viscose
rayon
and
1,000
gallons
to
produce
1
pound
of
acetate.
Only
those
quantitative
water-requirement
values
that
appear
reasonable
have
been
quoted
in
this
section;
some
previously
published
figures
of
water
use
in
these
industries
appear
to
be
grossly
in
error.
FIELD
SURVEYS
UNIT
WATER-USE
REQUIREMENTS
During
the
survey
of
plants
conducted
in
late
1952
and
early
1953
(a
few
plants
were
visited
in
1951),
unit
water-use
figures
were
obtained;
these
figures
varied
considerably.
At
three
of
the
rayon-fiber
plants
it
was
necessary
to
estimate
daily
pro-
duction
to
compute
unit
water
use
because
company
policy
was
opposed
to
release
of
production
figures.
During
the
investiga-
tion
it
was
discovered
that
the
water
requirements
for
cellophane
production
were
equivalent
to
those
for
viscose-rayon
pro-
duction. Data
on
unit
water
requirements
obtained
for
two
cel-
lophane
plants
also
were
included.
One
rayon
plant supplied
the
water
requirements
for
a
company
town
in
addition
to
the
water
required
for
production.
The
municipal
use
was
equivalent
to
6.
5
gallons
per
pound
of
rayon
fiber
produced.
This
amount
for
municipal
use
was
subtracted
from
total
water
use
in
computing
unit
water
used
for
that
particular
installation.
154
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
All
of
the
unit
water-use
data
obtained
in
the
survey
of
the
rayon
plants
are
listed
in
table
2.
The
maximum
was
240
gallons
per
pound
of
rayon
fiber,
8
times
the
minimum;
the
median
was
110
gallons.
At
eight
of
the
viscose-rayon
plants,
data
on
unit
use
require-
ments
for
process
water
(called
soft
water
in
the
industry)
were
obtained.
These
process-water
requirements
(table
2)
range
from
about
10
to
about
80
gallons
per
pound
of
product.
The
med-
ian
use
was
32
gallons
of
process
water
per
pound
of
viscose-rayon
fiber.
Acetate
fiber
is
made
at
seven
plants
in
the
United
States.
At
one
plant,
acetate
fiber
is
made
from
cellulose
acetate,
but
at
the
other
plants
the
raw
cellulose
material
is
either
purified
wood
cellulose
or
cotton'linters.
Unit
water-use
values
obtained
from
the
six
acetate-fiber
plants
using
the
complete
process
are
shown
in
table
2.
Unit
use
ranged
from
about
40
to
nearly
500
gallons
Table
2.
Gallons
of
water
per
pound
of
product,
arranged
by
product,
use,
and
magnitude
[Compiled
from
data
obtained
at
the
plants,
November
1952-January
1953]
Viscose
and
ci'pram-
monium
Total
use
30
42
2
50
2
60
73
74
84
88
102
2
106
109
109
2
110
112
112
114
128
130
132
132
137
160
166
178
178
2
186
240
Rayoni
Viscose
Process
use
ziO.6
13.3
15.6
28.2
36.2
43.3
49.9
82.0
Consumptive
use
0.18
.18
.18
.24
.58
.75
.84
.91
1.06
2.65
2.97
3.27
3.36
3.65
3.72
4.11
10.2
12.0
12.5
Acetate
Total
use
41
<L12
2140
209
360
494
Consumptive
use
0.3
4.5
5.0
llncludes
2
cellophane
plants.
ZValue
obtained
in
1951.
RAYON- AND
ACETATE-FIBER
INDUSTRY
155
per
pound
of
acetate
produced;
the
maximum
was
slightly
more
than
12
times
the
minimum
and
the
median
was
170
gallons
per
pound.
Both
summer
and
mean
annual
water-use
values
were
obtained
at
12
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants.
Summer
use
ranged
from
2
to
50
percent
greater
and
averaged
22
percent
greater
than
mean
annual
water
use
because
cooling
requirements
for
air
condi-
tioning
were
greater
and
the
water
available
for
cooling
was
usually
warmer.
Table
3
shows
the
total
water
used
in
the
United
States
for
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
manufacture,
by
source
of
water
used.
Table
3. Source
of
water
used
in
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
manufacture in
the
United
States,
1952-53
survey
Source
Private
supply:
Total...................................................
.
..........
Rayon
Million
gallons
per
day
257.3
27.2
6.3
290.8
Percent
89
9
2
100
Acetate
Million
gallons
per
day
299.2
23.9
2.4
325.5
Percent
92
7
1
100
Most
of
the
water
was
derived
from
surface-water
supplies.
Al-
though
surface
water
generally
requires
treatment,
this
is
not
particularly
disadvantageous
because
the
surface
water
available
at
the
plant
sites
selected
is
generally
of
good
quality,
and
the
treatment
methods
are
inexpensive.
An
advantage
of
surface
wa-
ter
is
its
generally
low
mineral
content
as
compared
with
ground
water
in
the
same
locality.
Ground
water
constituted
the
major
source
of
supply
at
five
plants.
It
was
also
used
at
a
few
plants
for
cooling
in
summer
and
at
one
plant
the
ground
water
used
for
this
purpose
was
saline.
At
this
plant
sea
water
was
used
for
cooling
in
winter.
The
median
use
of
water
for
all
purposes
at
a
rayon-fiber
plant
was
9
mgd
and
at
an
acetate-fiber
plant
was
38
mgd.
CONSUMPTIVE
WATER
USE
Water
is
used
consumptively
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose-
rayon
fiber:
by
evaporation
to
maintain
humidity
in
the
air-condi-
tioning
system;
in
the
operation
of
cooling
towers
used
in
power
production
and
air
cooling;
and
to
rejuvenate
the
spinning
solution.
156
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
Water
losses
also
result
from evaporation
of
the
many
water
so-
lutions
used
at
the
plant
and
from
drying
the
finished
product.
Not
all
the
viscose-rayon
plants
visited
in the
1952 53
survey
indicated
what
their
consumptive
losses
were,
but
the
consumptive
water
use
in
gallons
per
pound
of
product
for
19
plants
was
obtained
(see
table
2).
The
median
consumptive
water
use
was
1.
7
gallons
per
pound.
The
largest
consumptive
water
use
per
pound
of
fiber
was
about
70
times
the
minimum.
No
relation
appears
to
exist
between
the
total
unit
water
use
and
the
consumptive
unit
water
use
at
the
viscose-rayon
plants.
Water
loss
in
the
manufacture
of
cuprammonium-rayon
fiber
results
principally
from
drying
the
finished
fibers
and
from
evap-
oration
of
water
solutions
used
in
processing.
As
there
is
only
one
cuprammonium
rayon
plant
operating
in
the
United
States,
consumptive
use
of
water
is
not
reported.
In
producing
acetate
fiber,
water
losses
result
from
evaporation
to
maintain
humidity
in
air
conditioning;
in
the
operation
of
cooling
towers
used
in
power
production
and
air
cooling;
and
from
evap-
oration
from
water
solutions
used
in
processing.
In
addition,
water
is
lost
in
chemical-recovery
processes
and
in
drying
the
cellulose-acetate
flakes.
Three
of
the
acetate-fiber
plants
esti-
mated
their
consumptive
water
use
at
0.
3,
4.
5,
and
5.
0
gallons
per
pound
(table
2).
The
estimates
cover
a
considerable
range;
the
largest
of
the
three
values
is
about
17
times
the
smallest.
There
is
no
apparent
relation
between
the
total
water
use
per
pound
of
acetate
fiber
and
the
consumptive
water
use
per
pound.
When
computed
from
the
unit
consumptive
water
use
as
deter-
mined
by
the
survey,
total
consumptive
water
use
in
the
rayon-
fiber
industry
in
1953
was
a
little
more
than
4
mgd
and
in
the
acetate-fiber
industry
a
little
less
than
4
mgd.
Combined
con-
sumptive
water
use
in
the
two
industries
was
a
little
less
than
8
mgd.
QUALITATIVE
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
PUBLISHED
DATA
PROCESS
WATER
Many
references
in
the
technical
literature
indicate
that
pure,
cool
water,
free
from
injurious
chemicals,
is
desirable
for
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
manufacture.
The
earliest
water-quality
spec-
ifications
that
were
found
were
given
by
Moore
(1940)
and
are
presented
in
table
4.
These
specifications
have
been
widely
quoted.
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER
INDUSTRY
157
Table
4.
Suggested
maximum
concentrations
ot
dissolved
and
suspended
constituents
and
range
of
recommended
threshold
of
process
water
for
the
manufacture
of
viscose-
rayon
fiber.
[Data
modified
from
Moore,
1940]
Total
hardness
(as
C
pH.......................
Constituent
or
property
Limiting
values
(ppm)
0.0
.0
55
7.8
-
8.3
.3
Habbart
(1945),
in
a
discussion
of
the
American
Viscose
Com-
pany,
stated
that
the
water
for
rayon-fiber
manufacture
should
be
cool,
relatively
free
from
iron,
manganese,
and
industrial
waste,
and
low
in
calcium,
magnesium,
silica,
and
color.
He
pointed
out
that
magnesium
hydroxide
and
residual
alum,
because
of
their
gelatinous
properties,
tend
to
adhere
to
textile
fibers
and
may
affect
dyeing,
and
suggested
an
upper
limit
of
0.
4
ppm
(parts
per
million)
for
residual
alum.
Iron
and
manganese
cause
stains
and
interfere
with
bleaching
and
dyeing.
Iron
precipitates
as
ferric
hydroxide
and
attaches
easily
to
the
fibers,
and
iron
in
any
form
will
be
deposited
on
the
surface
of
a
filament
by
adsorption.
In
addition,
manganese
is
very
detrimental
in
the
mercerizing
proc-
ess
because
of
its
catalytic
reaction.
In
some
operations,
iron
(as
Fe)
under
0.
2
ppm
and
manganese
(as
Mn)
under
0.
1
ppm
will
give
little
trouble,
but
it
is
advisable
to
keep
the
sum
of
the
two
well
under
0.
1
ppm.
Ordinary
methods
of
controlling
the
Crenothrix-type
bacteria
that
use
iron
or
manganese
in
their
life
processes
cannot
be
used.
The
copper
in
the
copper
sulfate
fre-
quently
used
to
control
algae
cannot
be
tolerated
in
the
process
water.
Habbart
also
stated
that
free
chlorine
acts
more
rapidly
and
is
more
economical
than
chloramine
or
sodium
pentachloro-
phenate
for
retarding
biologic
growth
with
the
plan
of
operation
generally
used
in
plants
manufacturing
rayon
fiber.
Miller
(1946)
presented
specifications
for
water
quality
for
rayon-fiber
manufacture
that
permit
much
higher
mineral
content
than
those
given
by
Moore
in
1940.
However,
he
did
indicate
that
for
some
operations
in
which the
water
comes
in
contact
with
the
product
a
lower
mineral
content
would
be
required.
On
the
other
hand
he
stated
that
water
of
higher
mineral
content
could
be
used
for
other
operations.
In
general,
the
specifications
that
he
gave
would
permit
satisfactory
operation.
(See
table
5.)
Process
water
for
manufacture
of
acetate
fiber
must
be
very
low
in
color,
turbidity,
and
iron
(Mauersberger,
1952).
158
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
Table
5.
Specifications
for
water
quality
for
rayon-fiber
manufacture
[Data
modified
from
Miller, 1946]
Constituent
or
property
Iron
(Fe)..........
........
........
.
...
................................................
Alkalinity
(as
CaCOj).^............................«........................................».
Permissible
upper
limits
(ppm)
10
.25
.05
.02
.01
200
10
75
5
1
5
0
or
sterile
^Reporting
unit
is
not
given;
apparently
does
not
include
iron
or
manganese.
BOILER-FEED
WATER
Large
amounts
of
boiler-feed
water are
used
to
produce
steam
as
it
is
economical
to
operate
the
system
only
partly
closed
and
use
the
steam
for
two
purposes.
Usually
the
steam,
at
high
pres-
sure
from
the
boiler
plant,
is
first
used
to
operate
turbines
that
drive
electric
generators.
Low-pressure
steam
discharged
from
the
turbines
is
used
for
process
heating,
of
which
a
large
part
is
used
by
mixing
with
process
water
and
thus
is
lost
to
the
boiler
system.
The
ratio
of
boiler-water
makeup
to
total
steam
output
is
therefore
quite
high
compared
with
a
closed
system.
Untreated
water
generally
is
unsatisfactory
for
boiler-feed
water.
Its
proper
treatment
is
so
specialized
that
for
large
installations
consultants
ordinarily
are
employed
to
revise
the
treatment
whenever
it
is
necessary
due
to
quality
changes
in
the
available
raw
water.
The
use
of
unsuitable
water
can
result
in
heavy
maintenance
and
replacement
costs
as
a
result
of
exces-
sive
corrosion,
scale
formation,
and
even
caustic
embrittlement.
Suggested
limits
of
tolerance
for
boiler-feed
water
proposed
by
Moore
(1940)
are
given
in
table
6.
These
values
were
prepared
by
the
Committee
on
Water
Quality
Tolerances
for
Industrial
Uses
of
the
New
England
Water
Works
Association
and
have
been
widely
quoted.
COOLING
WATER
Water
may
be
used
for
cooling
or
heat
transfer
either
in
a
recirculating
or
a
once-through
system.
In
a
recirculating
system,
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER
INDUSTRY
159
Table
6.
Suggested
water-quality
tolerance
tor
boiler-feed
water
[After
Moore,
1940.
Allowable
limits
in
parts
per
million]
Bicarbonate
(HCOs)
1
.
.......
............................
Turbidity..................................................
Sulf
ate-
carbonate
ratio*
fNa*SQt
:
NasCO.)
.......
0-150
15
t
1
-
4
*e
80
5
40
50
200
50
3,
000-500
80
Q
A
20
1-1
150-250
10
.14
*q
40
.5
20
30
100
40
2,
500-500
40
8.4
10
2:1
250-400
4
.0
0
10
.05
5
5
40
30
1,500-100
5
Q
f)
5
3:1
Over
400
3
.0
0
2
.01
1
0
Oft
15
50
2
9.6
1
3:1
1
Limits
applicable
only
to
feed
water
entering
boiler,
not
to
original
water
supply.
^Except
when
odor
in
live
steam
would
be
objectionable.
Depends
on
design
of
boiler.
4
American
Society
of
Mechanical
Engineers
standards.
the
water
acquires
heat
from
the
process
and
loses
the
heat
in
a
cooling
tower
or
spray
pond.
The
only
water
needed
in
a
recircu-
lating
cooling
system
is
that
needed
to
compensate
for
evaporation
and
spray
losses
and
to
drain
off
excessive
mineral
concentra-
tions.
A
once-through
system
uses
the
water
only
once
for
cool-
ing
after
which
it
is either
wasted
or
used
in
process.
Cooling
water
should
be
of
a
satisfactory
quality
to
keep
corro-
sion,
scale
formation,
and
the
growth
of
micro-organisms
at
a
minimum.
Achievement
of
this
goal
ordinarily
requires
water
treatment,
at
least
for
recirculating
systems.
Cooling
water
that
is
used
only
once
must
be
of
a
suitable
temperature.
Generally
in
once-through
use
it
is
advisable
to
chlorinate
to
prevent
the
growth
of
slimes
and
iron
or
manganese
bacteria.
Scale
forma-
tion
sometimes
may
be
prevented
by
adding
small
amounts
of
sulfuric
acid.
This
converts
some
of
the
carbonates
to
sulfates,
which
are
more
soluble
than
the
carbonates
and
so
will
not
preci-
pitate
as
scale
when
the
water
temperature
is
raised.
The
addition
of
small
doses
of
polyphosphates
will
prevent
precipi-
tation
of
calcium,
magnesium,
and
iron,
if
the
pH
of
the
water
is
not
too
high
and
the
water
temperature
is
not
raised
excessively
(Nordell,
1951).
If
the
cooling
water
is
to
be
used subsequently
for
process,
it
is
generally
advisable
to
complete
the
necessary
treatment
before
using
it
as
a
coolant.
Such
water
is
ordinarily
very
satisfactory
for
cooling.
160
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
FIELD
SURVEYS
All
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants
in
the
United
States
were
visited
during
the
survey
(1951 53).
The
type
of
treatment
and
the
use
of
treated
water
at
each
plant
were
inventoried.
The
management
of
the
various
plants
supplied
a
considerable
amount
of
data
on
the
chemical
and
physical
characteristics
of
their
untreated
water
supplies.
However,
more
than
60
percent
of
the
water-quality
data
presented
in
this
report
were
obtained
by
the
U.
S.
Geological
Survey
as
a
part
of
its
program
of
inves-
tigation
of
the
quality
of
water
of
the
United
States.
A
little
more
than
one-half
of
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants
obtain
all
their
water
from
a
single
source,
about
one-third
of
the
plants
find
it
advantageous
to
obtain
water
from
two
sources,
and
about
one-seventh
use
three
or
more
sources.
In
the
major-
ity
of
plants
where
water
was
obtained
from
more
than
one
source,
one
quality
of
water
was
used
for
process
and
another
quality
for
cooling.
QUALITY
OF
UNTREATED
WATER
Data
were
obtained
on
the
chemical
and
physical
characteristics
of
the
untreated
water
supplies
as
shown
in
tables
7 8.
The
in-
formation
was
separated
into
four
groups
based
on
the
intended
use
of
the
water.
The
data
on
the
quality
of
the
untreated
water
used
for
cooling
in
viscose-rayon
manufacture
are
given in
table
7.
At
some
plants,
cooling
water
was
used
without
treatment;
at
other
plants
all
or
part
of
the
cooling
water
was
treated
before
use.
The
minimum,
lower
quartile,
median,
upper
quartile,
and
maximum
were
determined
for
each
constituent
and
characteristic
for
which
a
sufficient
number
of
samples
was
available.
The
characteristics
of
the
untreated
water
used
to
furnish
process
water
in
viscose-rayon
manufacture
are
also
given
in
table
7.
A
comparison
of
the
two
groups
shows
that
all
the
minimum
values
and
the
maximum,
median,
and
quartile
values
for
silica,
alumi-
num,
iron,
manganese,
free
carbon
dioxide,
carbonate,
fluoride,
nitrate,
pH,
turbidity,
suspended
matter,
and
average
tempera-
ture
are
nearly
identical.
However,
the
maximum,
median
and
quartile
values
for
the
other
constituents
and
characteristics
for
process
water
are
generally
lower
than
the
values
for
the
same
constituents
in
cooling
water.
Table
8
shows
the
chemical
and
physical
characteristics
of
the
untreated
waters
used
to
furnish
cooling
water
and
process
water,
Table
7.
Quality
characteristics
of
untreated
water
used
for
cooling
and
processing
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose-rayon
fiber,
based
on
available
analyses
j
[Results
expressed
in
parts
per
million
unless
otherwise
indicated.
These
are
based
on
individual
observations
and
are
not
balanced
analyses]
Constituent
or
property
Iron
(Fe)....
..............................
Sodium
and
potassium
(as
Na)
......
Sulfate
(SC-4).........
...................
Chloride
(Cl).
...........................
Nitrate
(NOs)....
........................
Hardness
as
CaCOs:
Alkalinity
as
CaCO,.
..........
........
*
3
_TT
Specific
conductance
(in
micro-
mhos
at
25*C)..
.......
............
Cooling
1
Number
of
samples
22
3
23
6
23
23
16
5
7
21
22
23
16
19
21
26
12
6
21
23
10
6
4
23
Minimum
0
.3
.01
.00
.7
.4
1.7
1.8
0
6
0
.5
.0
.1
14
3
0
8
0
4.8
52.0
4
2
55
Lower
quartile
4.2
.04
9
1.9
2.8
0
24
5
2.0
.04
.3
53
33
8
4
6.8
90
57
Median
6.5
.07
.00
19
4.3
4.6
0
56
15
4.3
.1
1.0
92
70
21
78
7.2
7.3
150
30
60
Upper
quartile
9.3
.18
32
9
7.8
0
95
28
10
.16
2.5
140
117
35
10
7.6
270
63
Maximum
16
3.4
2.5
.7
55
29
9.8
38
0
172
108
285
.4
6.1
747
197
43
145
50
8.0
1,260
150
51
69
Processing
Number
of
samples
23
3
24
7
24
24
19
5
11
22
23
24
17
20
22
26
15
7
22
23
12
7
4
23
Minimum
0
.3
.01
.00
.7
.4
.7
1.8
0
6
0
.5
0
.1
14
3
0
8
0
4.8
40.8
3
2
55
Lower
quartile
3.6
.04
5
1.4
2.2
0
16
3.5
1.8
.1
.3
41
20
5
3
6.8
70
57
Median
6.7
.07
.00
14
3.2
4.0
0
42
7
3.8
.1
.6
84
55
12
41
5
7.2
120
20
60
Upper
quartile
9.5
.13
25
6.8
6.8
0
90
20
8
.1
1.7
115
92
32
10
7.5
200
62
Maximum
16
3.4
.7
.7
39
11
9.8
38
0
119
40
20
.2
9.3
186
132
43
114
50
8.0
298
150
51
69
1
One
plant
using
sea
water
is nor
included.
Table
8.
Quality
characteristics
of
untreated
water
used
for
cooling
and
processing
in
the
manufacture
of
acetate
fiber,
based
on
available
analyses
^
[Results
expressed
in
parts
per
million
unless
otherwise
indicated.
These
are
based
on
individual
observations
and
are
not
balanced
analyses]
^
Constituent
of
property
Silica
(SiO2)..
.........
......................................................
..............
Sulfate(SO4).......
.......................................................................
Chloride
(Cl).
.............................................................................
Fluoride
(F).....
...........................................................................
Nitrate
(NC%)..
..............................
..............................................
Hardness
as
CaCOj:
Total.....................................................................................
T.T
Cooling
Number
of
samples
4
4
1
7
6
4
1
1
4
8
8
3
4
7
7
2
5
6
6
3
4
6
Minimum
4.5
.02
3.6
.8
1.7
58
2
.5
.1
.25
47
13
9
11
0
6.3
123
1
54.2
Median
7
.25
0
16
7
3
9
^
0
70
8
3
.1
1.4
100
70
60
10
7.1
6
57
Maximum
18
1.8
36
18
18.4
124
65
7.5
.1
15
199
152
29
136
115
7.8
312
60
59
Processing
Number
of
samples
4
3
1
6
5
4
1
2
4
6
6
3
4
6
5
3
3
5
5
3
4
5
Minimum
4.2
.02
3.6
.8
1.7
0
58
2
.5
.1
.25
47
13
0
27
0
7.0
123
1
54.2
Median
6
0
13
5.5
10
2.5
65
8
2.5
.1
2
96
50
8
7.1
2.5
56
Maximum
18
.10
36
10
20.8
0
124
41
7.5
.1
15
199
131
29
86
115
7.8
312
60
58.5
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-
FIBER
INDUSTRY
163
respectively,
for
acetate-fiber
manufacture.
However,
the.
number
of
samples
was
too
small
to
permit
the
computation
of
quartiles.
Comparison
of
the
two
groups
indicates
that
untreated
process
water
is
of
slightly
better
quality
than
untreated
cooling
water.
Water
is
almost
always
treated
for
process
use
and
may
be
treat-
ed
for
cooling
use.
This
difference
in
quality
is
greater
in
water
used
in
the
viscose-rayon
industry
than
in
the
acetate
industry.
More
detailed information
on
the
occurence
of
iron,
dissolved
solids,
and
total
hardness
in
the
untreated
water
used
for
process
in
viscose-rayon
manufacture
is
shown
by
means
of
frequency
distribution
charts
in
figure
24.
Similar
data
on
color,
pH,
turbidity,
and
average
temperature
are
shown
in
figure
25.
o
Ul
1-
0
o
z
111
o
w.
I
Fi
"W
^
1
P
1
%
<*
0 0
^
%>
m
24
S
«
imples
H
H
H
0.2
Q3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
IRON
(Fe),
IN
PARTS
PER
MILLION
22
Samples
25
50
75
100
125
150
DISSOLVED
SOLIDS.
IN
PARTS
PER
MILLION
175
200
24
Samples
20
40
60
80
100
120
TOTAL
HARDNESS
AS
Ca
C0
3
,
IN
PARTS
PER
MILLION
140
Figure
24.
Frequency
distribution
of
chemical
characteristics
in
untreated
water
supplies
used
for
process
water
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose-rayon
fiber,
based
on
available
analyses.
A
graphical
representation
of
the
chemical
composition
of
a
typical
untreated
water
for
process
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose-
rayon
fiber
is
shown
in
figure
26.
Silica
is
shown
as
a
percent-
age
by
weight
of
the
sum
of
all
the
constituents.
The
cations
are
shown
in
two
categories,
expressed
as
a
percentage
of
equivalents
per
million
of
strong
and
weak
bases,
and
the
anions
are
shown
as
a
percentage
of
equivalents
per
million
of
strong
and
weak
acids.
164
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
NUMBER
OF
TIMES
REPORTED
IN
RANGE
INDICATED
D
en
o
en
o
en
o
en
c
1
>
1
y
22
S
10
1
5
J
.
amples
20
COLOR
23
S
ampl<
P
6
pH
7
S
iS
1
1
30
1
7
imples
)
25
50
TURBIDITY
AS
1,
II
23
S
1
Si0
2
,
40
50
1
1
1
I
8
1
75
100
125
15
IN
PARTS
PER
MILLION
amples
41
50 55
60 65
AVERAGE
TEMPERATURE
AT
INTAKE,
IN
DEGREES
FAHRENHEIT
70
Figure
25.
Frequency
distribution
of
physical
characteristics
in
untreated
water
supplies
used
for
process
water
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose-rayon
fiber,
based
on
available
analyses.
A
summary
of
the
properties
of
the
untreated
water
used
for
cooling
and
for
process
in
the
manufacture
of
both
viscose-rayon
and
acetate
fiber
is
given
in
table
9.
The
maximum,
minimum,
and
mean
values,
of
the
total
cations
expressed
in
equivalents
per
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY
165
Strong
bases
(12%)
Sodium
and
potassium
Strong
acids
(21%)
Sulfate,chloride,and
nitrate
Weak
acids(79%)
Bicarbonate
Calcium
and
magnesium
'Silica
(10%)
Figure
26.
-Chemical
composition
of
a
typical
untreated
water
used
for
process
water
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose-rayon
fiber.
(Silica
equals
per
9
entage
composition by
weight;
all
other
constituents
indicate
percentages
of
equivalents
per
million
of
total
cations
or
anions.)
million
(epm)
the
ratio
of
calcium
(epm)
to
magnesium
(epm),
and
the
ratio
of
calcium
(epm)
to
total
cations
(epm)
for
each
of
four
groups
of
waters
are
given.
Mean
values
of
the
ratios
of
calcium
to
magnesium
ranged
from
1.89
to
2.
43,
and
mean
values
of
the
ratios
of
calcium
to
total
cations
ranged
from
0.48
to
0.
57
for
the
groups.
No
ratios
of
calcium
to
magnesium
greater
than
4
2
were
found.
In
summation
it
can
be
said
that
the
raw
waters
for
cooling
and
process
were
generally
low
in
content
of
calcium
and
magnesium
(with
calcium
comprising
about
one-half
the
total
cations)
were
V
f
M'F
m
ir
°
n
and
manganese
'
and
had
an
average
temperature
166
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
Table
9.
Properties
of
untreated
water
used
for
the
manufacture
of
viscose-rayon
and
acetate
fiber
based
on
available
analyses
Fiber
Viscose
rayon...
Do.............
Do............
Use
of
water
Process
(Soft
water).
Process.........
Num-
ber
of
anal-
yses
16
19
3
3
Total
cations
(equivalents
per
million)
Maxi-
mum
3.50
2.97
3.43
3.43
Mini-
mum
0.13
.13
1.32
1.32
Mean
1.69
1.41
2.04
2.13
Calcium
:
magnesium
1
Maxi-
mum
4.20
4.20
2.20
2.20
Mini-
mum
1.00
1.00
1.70
1.78
Mean
2.34
2.43
1.89
2.04
Calcium
:
total
cations
1
Maxi-
mum
0.76
.76
.61
.61
Mini-
mum
0.23
.23
.52
.30
Mean
0.55
.56
.57
.48
1
Ratio
of
constituents
in
equivalents
per
million.
WATER
TREATMENT
In
the
rayon-fiber
industry
much
of
the
plant
capacity
has
been
constructed
or
modernized
during
recent
years.
As
a
result,
operations
at
the
various
plants
are
quite
similar
and
the
treated
water
used
at
all
rayon-fiber
plants
is
similar.
The
situation
is
the
same
in
the
acetate-fiber
industry.
Table
10
shows
the
water-
treatment
methods
used
at
the
various
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants.
The
type
of
water
treatment
differs
more
with
the
quality
of
the
raw
water
than
with
variations
in
the
process
of
manufac-
ture.
Because
most
of
the
water
is
obtained
from
surface
sup-
plies,
the
principal
types
of
water
treatment
consist
of
coagulation,
sedimentation,
filtration,
pH
adjustment,
chlorination,
and
soften-
ing,
in
the
order
named.
Only
a
scattering
of
other
types
of
treatment
are
employed.
The
quality
requirements
for
process
water
at
rayon
and
ace-
tate
plants
are
such
that
general-purpose
water
for
drinking
and
other
domestic
service
usually
can
be
supplied
by
using
process
water.
However,
nearly
half
of
the
plants
purchase
at
least
a
small
part
of
their
water
from
public
supplies.
Table
10.
Water-treatment
methods
at
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants
[Does
not
include
prior
treatment
of
purchased
water]
Filtration.................
....................................................
.............
Chlorination.................
...............................................................
.
Number
Rayon
22
99
99
91
1
Q
15
1
1
1
of
plants
Acetate
4
4
5
4
1
1
1
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER
INDUSTRY
167
FUTURE
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
Many
factors
must
be
considered
in
estimating
the
total
water
requirements
of
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
industry
in
future
years.
Some
of
these
factors,
such
as
the
extent
to
which
rayon
and
acetate
fibers
may
replace
or
be
replaced
by
other
natural
or
synthetic
fibers,
are
rather
uncertain;
other
factors
may
be
more
accurately
determined.
Reasonably
accurate
estimates
can
be
made
of
the
amounts
of
water
that
will
be
required
at
individual
plants
of
feasible
size
and
in
what
section
of
the
country
such
plants
probably
will
be
located.
LOCATION
OF
INDUSTRY
The
locations
of
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants
in
operation
at
the
time
of
the
1952 53
survey
are
shown
in
figure
27.
The
25
rayon-fiber
and
7
acetate-fiber
plants
are
scattered
from
Alabama
to
Vermont
and,
with
few
exceptions,
are
located
in
small
towns
or
at
sites
several
miles
from
any
large
city.
One
authority
(Alderfer
and
Michl,
1950)
stated,
"The
chief
reasons
for
the
wide
geographical
spread
appear
to
be
the
search
for
areas
where
there
is
an
abundant
supply
of
clean,
soft
water
and
where
taxes
are
low.
"
Other
factors
of
less
importance
in
site
selection
are
fuel
prices
and
transportation
costs.
Large
amounts
of
coal
are
used
in
producing
the
steam
and
electricity
required,
so
points
near
coal
mines
mean
lower
freight
costs
for
fuel.
Much
of
the
rayon
and
acetate
fiber
is
shipped
from
the
plants
on
reusable
spools
or
bobbins
designed
to
fit
the
textile
machinery
of
the
purchaser,
so
proximity
to
the
rayon
textile
mills
is
desirable.
Most
of
the
tex-
tile
industry
is
now
located
in
the
Southeast
with
the
Northeast
in
second
place.
All
of
the
cotton
linters
and
much
of
the
purified
wood
cellulose
used
in
rayon-and
acetate-fiber
manufacture
are
also
produced
in
the
South.
GROWTH
OF
INDUSTRY
Production
of
rayon
and
acetate
fiber
in
the
United
States
and
in
the
world
increased
about
eightfold
during
the
period
1930-53
as
shown
in
figure
28
which
shows
domestic
and
foreign
quantitative
and
percentage
values
of
the
total
annual
production
of
these
fibers
during
the
period.
Foreign
production,
which,
in
1939,
was
con-
centrated
in
Japan,
Germany,
and
Italy,
was
drastically
affected
by
World
War
II,
but
the
principal
effect
on
United
States
produc-
tion
was
to
stimulate
output
during
the
first
6
postwar
years.
Manufacturing
costs
of
rayon
and
acetate
products
are
so
high
in
relation
to
transportation
costs
that
foreign
production
is
168
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
EXPLANATION
Rayon
x
Acetate
Figure
27.
Location
of
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants,
1952.
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER INDUSTRY
169
O
1000
Figure
28.
United
States
and
world
production
of
rayon
and
acetate
fiber
by
(A)
quantity
and
(B)
percent,
1930-53.
(Data
for
1930-45,
Mauersberger,
1952,
p.
56,
58,
72;
1946-53,
Textile
Qrganon,
1954,
no.
6,
p.
89.)
170
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
intimately
related
to
production
in
the
United
States.
The
export-
import
trade
is
sensitive
to
small
price
changes.
Thus,
for
rayon
and
acetate
fiber
and
yarn
there
was
an
import
balance
of
10
per-
cent
of
domestic
production
in
1939;
an
export
balance
of
12
per-
cent
in
1949;
and
an
import
balance
of
4percent
in
1951.
Domestic
production
in
some
years
may
be
much
less
and
for
others
much
more
than
domestic
consumption,
depending
on
the
delicate
bal-
ance
of
foreign
trade.
Rayon
and
acetate
are
competitive
with
cotton,
wool,
silk,
and
the
other
manmade
fibers.
Figure
29
shows
the
annual
mill
con-
sumption
of
each
of
these
fibers,
by
both
quantity
and
percent
of
total, for
the
years
1930 53.
Of
the
fibers
selected,
cotton
and
wool
are
supplying
a
decreasing
percentage
of
the
total
require-
ments.
Since
1941
silk
has
almost
completely
vanished
from
the
market.
The
use
of
rayon
and
acetate
fibers
is
increasing
rapidly
but,
since
1950,
the
use
of
other
manmade
fibers
has
increased
even
more
rapidly.
Figure
30
shows
the
annual
production
of
various
types
of
rayon
and
acetate
fibers
by
both
quantity
and
percent
of
total
for
1930
53.
In
1930,
textile-grade
rayon
filament
constituted
more
than
90
percent
of
total
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
production,
but
al-
though
total
production
of
this
type
had
about
doubled
during
the
period,
percentagewise
it
had
shrunk
to
17
percent
in
1953.
The
production
of
acetate
filament
during
this
same
period
increased
more
than
twentyfold
and
rose
from
8
percent
to
19
percent
of
the
total.
The
use
of
high-tenacity
rayon
filament
for
industrial
fiber
began
in
the
midthirties
and
by
1953
had
increased
to
38
percent
of
the
total,
more
than
twice
the
production
of
any
other
classi-
fication.
Production
of
rayon
staple
and
tow
began
about
1930
and
increased
rapidly
until,
by
1953,
it
exceeded
production
of
rayon
filament.
Manufacture
of
acetate
t>raple
and
tow
began
in
1953
and
output
has
amounted
to about
hak"
the
production
of
rayon
staple
and
tow
since
1950.
The
most
rapid
expansion
in
the
manufacture
of
this
type
of
fiber
occurred
in
the
5
years
following
World War
II.
PRESENT
CAPACITY
OF
PLANTS
Most
of
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants
now
in
operation
were
constructed
in
comparatively
small
units
and
gradually
ex-
panded
by
the
addition
of
similar
or
slightly
improved
units
until
they
reached
their
present
size.
This
type
of
expansion
is
appar-
ently
continuing
and
probably
will
continue.
Occasionally,
new
plants
are
placed
in
operation
or
obsolete
plants
are
abandoned,
but
most
of
the
industry's
growth
has
resulted
from
expansion
of
existing
plants.
<-*
2!
.**?
V-**
-0
rf».
o
i
£
a
o «
H
.-*
s
-e
PERCENT
OF
TOTAL
ANNUAL
MILL
CONSUMPTION
OF
SELECTED
FIBERS
MILL
CONSUMPTION,
IN
MILLIONS
OF
POUNDS
-O
to
PERCENT
OFTOTAL
ANNUAL
PRODUCTION
OFRAYON
AND
ACETATE
FIBER
PRODUCTION
OFRAYON
AND
ACETATE
FIBER,
IN
MILLIONS
OF
POUNDS
en ffi
K-\
r
1
i~|"
*^
^
(0
._-
*rt
P
5
&
1*
h-«
en
"
5<i
-
g
1*
s?
§
M
CO
JS
-
s
?§
M?
ga
«3
tn
w.
cn
>-"
B
gH
|
Ll
g
JOB.
^
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER
INDUSTRY
173
Rayon.
At
the
time
of
the
1952 53
survey,
25
rayon-fiber
plants
were
in
operation
in
the
United
States.
The
median
capacity
of
these
plants
was
38
million
pounds
per
year,
and
the
upper
and
lower
quartiles
were
54
and
15
million
pounds
per
year,
respec-
tively.
The
capacity
of
the
newer
mills
averaged
closer
to
the
upper
quartile
than
to
the
median
value.
Acetate.
Only
7
acetate-fiber
plants
were
in
operation
at
the
time
of
the
water-use
survey,
and
1
of
these
employed
only
a
par-
tial
process
making
practical
a
much
smaller
plant
capacity
than
would
be
feasible
fora
complete
process
plant.
The
median
ca-
pacity
of
the
6
complete
process
plants
was
85
million
pounds
per
year.
The
capacity
of
the
largest
plant
was
about
3
j
times
the
ca-
pacity
of
the
smallest
plant.
TRENDS
IN
THE
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER
INDUSTRY
Primarily
because
of
the
manufacturers'
reluctance
to
change
production
practice
to
include
synthetic
materials
and
the
con-
sumers'
hesitance
to
accept
them,
rayon
and
acetate
fibers
have
yet
to
reach
the
limit
of
their
potentialities.
However,
their
prospects
have
been
dimmed
somewhat
by
the
introduction
of
other
synthetic
fibers.
Relative
prices
of
rayon
and
acetate
fibers
and
the
newer
synthetics
probably
will
be
an
important
factor
in
the
extent
of
the
market
eventually
controlled
by
each
fiber
(Alder-
fer
and
Michl,
1950).
Price
probably
will
be
a
more
important
factor
in
selection
of
fibers
for
commercial
use
than
for
such
items
as
clothing
where
fashion or
convenience
may
be
a
deciding
factor.
It
has
been
estimated
that
1,
200,
000
tons
pf
purified
wood
cel-
lulose
will
be
consumed
by
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
industry
in
the United
States
in
1975
(Stanford
Research
Institute,
1954).
This
probably
would
be
in
addition
to
about
100,
000
tons
of
cotton
linters.
As
the
quantity
of
water
required
to
produce
a
pound
of
purified
wood
cellulose
probably
is
double
that
required
for
re-
fining
cotton
linters,
the
relation
between
the
two
sources
of
raw
material
may
affect
the
total
water
requirements
of
the
industry.
The
President's
Materials
Policy
Commisiion
(1952)
estimated
that
the
1975
production
of
rayon
fiber
in
the
United
States
would
be
2,
100
million
pounds
and
the
production
of
acetate
fiber
for
that
year
would
be
900
million
pounds.
On
the
basis
of
1953
unit
water-requirements
values,
about
680
mgd
would
be
required
in
1975
for
the
preparation
of
special
cel-
lulose
for
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
manufacture,
and
about
1,050
174
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
OF
SELECTED
INDUSTRIES
mgd
would
be
required
for use
at
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
plants.
This
would
mean
a
total
water
requirement
of
about
1,
700
mgd
in
1975,
including
preparation
of
the
special
cellulose.
SUMMARY
QUANTITATIVE
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
The
primary
aim
of
the
survey
conducted
in
1952 53
was to
de-
termine
the
current
water
requirements
of
the
rayon-
and
acetate-
fiber
plants
rather
than
to
determine
the
minimum
amount
of
water
that
could
be
used
in
producing
the
materials.
Median
unit
water
use
was
110
gallons
per
pound
in
the
rayon
plants
and
170
gallons
per
pound
in
the
acetate
plants.
Median
water
requirements
for
all purposes
at
rayon
and
acetate
plants
in
1953
were
9
mgd
and
38
mgd,
respectively.
Water
requirements
in
summer
were
somewhat
greater.
Total
annual
water
use for
rayon-fiber
manufacture
in
the
United
States
in
1953
averaged
290
mgd
and
for
acetate-fiber
man-
ufacture averaged
330
mgd.
The
annual
average
total
water
use
by
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
industry
in
1953
was
about
620
mgd.
Because
much
of
this
water
was
used
for
cooling
and
air
conditioning,
the
rate
of
use
in
summer
was
about
22
percent
greater
or
about
760
mgd.
In
1953,
the
estimated
average
total
water
requirements
for
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
manufacture,
in-
cluding
water
for
cellulose
preparation,
amounted
to
about
920
mgd
or
about
1
percent
of
the
estimated
total
withdrawal
of
indus-
trial
water
in
the
United
States.
Consumptive
use
of
water
in
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
indus-
try
.is
relatively
insignificant;
it
averaged
less
than
8
mgd
for
the
entire
industry
in
1953.
QUALITATIVE
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
The
qualitative
requirements
for
water
used
in
the
rayon-
and
acetate-fiber
industry
differ
greatly
with
the
use
that
is
made
of
the
water.
At
the
typical
plant,
cooling
water
is
withdrawn
from
a
river
and
screened
and
chlorinated
before
being
used
only
once.
If
the
cooling
water
is
reused,
treatment
may
be
more
elaborate.
Specifications
for
processing
water
for
both
rayon
and
acetate
manufacture
are
quite
strict;
the
water
must
be
soft
and
very
low
in
dissolved
solids.
Similar
specifications
apply
to
the
process
and
wash
water
used
in
preparing
the
purified
wood
cellulose
and
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE
:
FIBER
INDUSTRY
175
cotton
linters
used
as
raw
materials.
Process
water
is
usually
suitable
for
domestic
use
including
drinking.
Frequently
more
than
one
source
of
raw
or
untreated
water
is
available,
in
which
case
the
water
of
higher
quality
is
generally
used
for
process
water.
The
minimum,
median,
and
maximum
values
of
the
more
im-
portant
chemical
and
physical
characteristics
of
the
untreated
waters
used
for
process
water
in
viscose-rayon
manufacture
are
summarized
in
table
11.
The
untreated
water
used
for
process
in
acetate-fiber
manufacture
was
of
very
similar
character
as
indi-
cated
by
the
available
analyses
(Table
8).
Untreated
cooling
waters
used
for
both
rayon
and
acetate
manu-
facture
were,
as
a
group,
only
slightly
lower
in
quality
than
the
process
water.
These
waters
somewhat
resembled
the
untreated
process
waters
and
were
generally
cool,
low
in
calcium
and
mag-
nesium
content,
and
very
low
in
iron
and
manganese.
Table
11.
Most
important
quality
characteristics
of
untreated
water
used
for
process
water
in
the
manufacture
of
viscose-.rayon
fiber
[Results
expressed
in
parts
per
million
unless
otherwise
indicated.
These
are
based
on
individual
observations
and
are
not
balanced
analyses]
Constituent
or
property
Iron
(Fe)
............
Total
hardness
as
C
Turbidity
laCOs..
................................................
Minimum
0
.01
.00
.7
.4
3
0
3
55
Median
6.7
.07
.00
14
3.2
55
5
20
60
Maximum
16
.7
.7
39
11
132
50
150
69
TRENDS
BV
WATER
REQUIREMENTS
The
manufacture
of
rayon
and
acetate
fiber
constitutes
a
com-
paratively
new
industry,
accustomed
to
change.
Most
of
the
plants,
therefore,
have
been
quick
to
adopt
new
methods
that
would
result
in
savings,
including
those that
might
result
from economies
in
water
use.
There
is
a
tendency
to
use
smaller
amounts
of
water
per
pound
of
product
and
to
increase
the
size
of
the
plants.
SELECTED
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1953,
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1952,
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1951,
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W.,
1949,
Industrial
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1952,
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C.,
1947,
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1948,
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1951,
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43,
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10,
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1945,
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Williams,
1953,
Cellulose the
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Y.,
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day
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Co.,
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H.
E.,
1946,
Industrial
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Water
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Lake,
G.
K.,
1952,
Properties
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fabrics
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several
synthetic
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and
their
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pact
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E.
T.,
1950,
Textile
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5,
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6,
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81-82;
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81-83.
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C.
H.,
1951,
Industrial
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York,
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Loughlin,
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E.
[undated],
The
coloring
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post-war
synthetic
fibers:
New
York,
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tional
Aniline
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Allied
Chemical
&
Dye
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Mauer,
Leonard,
and
Wechsler,
Harry,
1952,
Rayon,
Part
1
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Modern
textiles
handbook:
Modern
Textiles,
v.
33,
no.
10,
p.
42,
84-86,
98.
Mauersberger,
H.
R.,
1952,
American
handbook
of
synthetic
textiles:
New
York,
Textile
Book
Publishers,
Inc.
Miedendorp,
Henry,
1948,
Water
purification
and
waste
disposal:
Rayon
Textile
Monthly,
v. 29,
no.
5, p.
85-87.
1949,
The
importance
of
soft,
pure
water
for
textile
mills:
Rayon
and
Synthetic
Textiles,
v.
30,
no.
5,
p.
89-91.
1951,
Water
purification
and
waste
disposal:
Rayon
and
Synthetic
Textiles,
v.
32,
no.
6, p.
74-76.
1952,
Water
treatment:
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and
Synthetic
Textiles,
v.
33,
no.
7,
p.
73,75,77.
Miller,
L.
B.,
1945,
Process
water
for
rayons:
Rayon
Textile
Monthly,
v.
26, no.
11.
1946,
Water
requirements
of
the
rayon
industry:
The
Betz
Indicator,
March
1946.
1948,
Iron
bacteria
in
industrial
process
water:
Rayon
Textile
Monthly,
v.
29,
no. 5,
p.
77-80.
RAYON-
AND
ACETATE-FIBER
INDUSTRY
177
Moisson,
G.
M.,
1952,
Where
are
synthetics
going?:
Textile
World,
v.
102,
no.
9,
o.
71,
72,
300,
302.
Moore,
E.
W.,
1940,
Progress
report
of
the
committee
on
quality
tolerances
of
water
for
industrial
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New
England
Water
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Assoc.
Jour.,
v.
54,
p.
263.
Mussey,
0.
D.,
1955,
Water
requirements
of
the
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and
paper
industry:
U. S.
Geol.
Survey
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Paper
1330-A.
National
Production
Authority,
1950,
Synthetic
yarns
and
fibers:
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C.
Nemerow,
N.
T.,
1952,
Sewage
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headwork
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teamwork:
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102,
no.
6, p.
151.
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W.
A.,
1951,
Synthetic-fiber
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World
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Eskel,
1951,
Water
treatment
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industrial
and
other
uses:
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York,
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J.
T.,
1948,
Synthetic
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the
South,
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Feb.
28,
1948,
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A.
G.,
1951,
Some
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chemical
finishing
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fibers:
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v.
40,
no.
17,
p.
P524-P528.
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R.
E.,
1949,
Continuous
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v.
99,
no.
10,
p.
103-107.
Olive,
T.
R.,
1938,
Viscose
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spun
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Chem.
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v.
45,
no.
12,
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668.
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1952,
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future:
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Research
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v.
23,
no.
2,
p.
144-151.
Rayon
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1950,
Textile
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v. 31,
no.
6,
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85-87.
1951,
Synthetic
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32,
no.
9, p.
32.
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Industrial
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T.,
1944,
Viscose
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265-268;
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1952,
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61,
62.
INDEX
Page
Acetate,
definition...............................144
Acetate
fibers,
properties.................144-145
Acetate
manufacturing,
consumptive
water
use....................................
156
process......................................149-150
quality
of
untreated
water...........162,
163,
164-165,
166
wastes.............................................151
water-treatment
methods....................
166
Acetate
plants,
capacity........................173
Acknowledgments..................................
iii
Bemberg
fabric....................................
144
Bibliography..................................175-177
Boiler-feed
water,
quantitative
water
requirements.........................158,
159
Capacity
of
plants,
present...............170-173
Consumptive
use
of
water..........155-156,
174
Cooling
water,
quantitative
water
requirements..........................158-159
quality
of
untreated
supplies........160,
161,
162,
164, 165.
166
Cotton
linters,
definition.......................
146
Cotton-linters
manufacturing,
process.......146
quality
of
the
water...........................
152
unit
water
use............................151,
152
Cuprammonium
rayon,
properties......
144-145
Cuprammonium-rayon
manufacturing,
consumptive water
use...................
156
process............................................149
wastes.............................................151
Definitions
of
rayon
and
acetate..............144
Future
water
requirements................
167-174
Growth of
industry..................167,
169,
170
History
of
industry..........................
142-144
Location
of
industry.......................167,
168
Manufacturing
processes,
acetate.......149-150
cotton
linters....................................146
cuprammonium
rayon.........................l49
viscose
rayon..............................147-148
wood
cellulose............................145-146
Process
water,
quality
of
untreated
supplies...160,161,162,163,164,165,166
quantitative
water
requirements.....
156-158
Purpose
of
investigation.........................
142
Quality
of
the
water,
cotton-linters
manufacturing..............................152
wood-cellulose
manufacturing..............152
Page
Quality
of
untreated
water................160-166
Quantitative
water
requirements,
boiler-feed
water...................158,
159
cooling
water.............................
158-159
process
water..............................156-157
summary...................................
174-175
Quantitative
water
requirements,
field
survey,
consumptive
water
use...155-156
field
survey,
unit
water
use...........
153-155
published
data............................
152-153
summary.........................................
174
Raw
material,
water
requirements
for
preparation
of........................
151-152
Rayon,
definition.................................144
Rayon
fibers,
properties...................144-145
Rayon
manufacturing,
consumptive
water
use..............................
155-156
processes...................................
147-149
wastes.......................................150-151
water-treatment
methods....................
166
Rayon
plants,
capacity..........................173
Scope
of
investigation...........................
142
Trends,
industry.............................173-174
water
requirements............................
175
Unit
water
use,
acetate
manufacturing....
154,
155
cotton-linters
manufacturing.........151,
152
rayon
manufacturing............
153,
154,
155
summary.........................................
174
wood-cellulose
manufacturing.......151,
152
Untreated
water,
quality..................160-166
Viscose
rayon,
properties................
144,
145
Viscose-rayon
manufacturing,
consumptive
water
use..............................
155-156
processes
..................................
147-148
quality
of
untreated
water....160,
161,
163,
164-165,
166
treatment
of
wastes......................150-151
types
of
wastes..................................150
Wastes,
acetate...................................
151
cuprammonium
rayon.........................151
viscose
rayon..............................150-151
Water-treatment
methods,
acetate
plants..166
rayon
plants.....................................
166
Wood
cellulose, made
from....................145
Wood-cellulose
manufacturing,
quality
of
the
water.................................152
sulfate
process..................................
146
sulfite
process.............................145-146
unit
water
use............................151,
152
179
U.
S.
GOVERNMENT
PRINTING
OFFICE
:
1957
O
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